Final Review Flashcards by Sarah Anderson

What are the common disc protrusion sites?

T12-T13, T13-L1, C2-C3, C3-C4

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Why is anesthesia recommended for spinal radiographs?

Prevents narrowing of the disc space with muscle spasms

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In spinal radiographs, high ___ and low ___ create better contrast

high kVp, low mAs

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Use of a ____ increases contrast for spinal radiographs

Grid

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When positioning for a spinal radiograph, the vertebral column must always be _____ with the table top

parallel

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When positioning for spinal radiographs, the disc spaces must be _____ with the table top

perpendicular

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Common views for spinal radiographs

lateral and VD

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Use of smaller cassettes and multiple views for spinal radiographs allow for what?

Perpendicular view of the disc spaces

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Why are DV spinal views not as accurate?

Not parallel

Object-film distance distortion

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How many views may be required for a full spinal study on a dog vs a cat?

Dog - 4-5 views

Cat - 1-2 views

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What is the vertebral formula?

C7 T13 L7 S3 Cd20+ (tail)

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Vertebral bone with no spinous process and two large lateral wings, articulate via synovial joints allowing greater movement

Atlas (C1)

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Vertebral bone with large “blad-like” spinous process, peglike dense at cranial aspect forming atlantoaxial joint. No intervertebral disc between C1 and C2, articulates caudally with C3 via intervertebral disc

Axis (C2)

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Vertebral bone with large transverse process (ventral lamina)

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What species has 18 pairs of ribs? (One breed does not)

Horses

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Species with thoracic vertebrae that have tall spinous processes, large articular facets that form joints with the heads of the ribs

Dogs

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In what species are rib heads cranial to respective vertebral body?

Cat

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Where would you find the narrowest intervertebral disc space in a dog?

Between T10-T11

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Which vertebra is the Anticlinal vertebra?

T11

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What species have 4 fused vertebrae making up the sacrum?

pigs and sheep

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What species have 5 fused vertebrae making up the sacrum?

Horses, cattle, goats and humans

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Where should the beam be centered for a lateral view of the cervical spine?

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Where should the measurement be taken for a lateral view of the cervical spine?

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What should be included in the field of view for cervical spine XRays?

Base of skull to first few thoracic vertebrae

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How should the patient be positioned for a flexed cervical spine radiograph?

Lateral recumbency with legs pulled caudally

Where should the beam be centered for a lateral thoracic spinal radiograph?

How should limbs be positioned for a thoracic spine lateral view?

Moderately extended in opposite directions

What is the field of view for a thoracic spine lateral radiograph?

Last cervial to first lumbar vertebrae (shoulder joint to past the origin of the last rib)

Where should the beam be centered for a VD view of the thoracic spine?

Over caudal border of the scapula (T6)

How should the patient be positioned for a VD thoracic spine view?

Dorsal recumbency with legs pulled cranially

In a VD view of the thoracic spine how should the sternum be positioned?

Superimposed over the spine

What is the field of view for a lateral view of the lumbar spine?

T12 to the sacrum and include entire lumbar spine

What view visualizes the "nike swoosh"?

Lumbar spine - Transver spine superimposed at the origins

What is the field of view for lateral lumbosacral vertebrae?

L6 and entire pelvis

How should the patient be positioned for a VD view of the sacrum?

Dorsal recumbency with legs in normal position

How should the tube head be angled for a VD view of the sacrum?

30 degrees

What is the field of view for a VD view of the sacrum?

L6 and entire pelvis

How should the patient be positioned for a caudal spine radiograph?

Lateral recumbency with limbs in a natural position, tail extended caudally

What is the field of view for a caudal spine radiograph?

4-5 vertebrae on either side of area of interest or full tail

How should the cassette be placed for a caudal spine view?

Raise cassette with a foam pad to keep on same plane as the tail

What is measured if sinus cavities need to be radiographed?

Measure just rostral to the thickest part of the cranium to avoid overexposure

What are the views for a routine skull or survey study?

Lateral (affected side down), DV, or VD

Where is the measurement for a lateral skull view?

Over high point of zygomatic arch

Where is the beam centered for a DV view of the skull?

Lateral canthus of the eye

Where is the measurement taken for a DV view of the skull?

Over high point of the cranium

How should the patient be positioned for a DV view of the skull?

Sternal recumbency with head resting on cassette, sand bag on neck and front limbs relaxed or pulled caudally

What is the field of view for a DV view of the skull?

Include top of nose to base of skull

How should the patient be positioned for a VD view of the skull?

Dorsal recumbency, legs pulled caudally, sand bags on either side of the neck, nose parallel with cassette

Where should the beam be centered for a VD view of the skull?

Lateral canthus of the eye

Where should the measurement for a VD view of the skull be taken?

Lateral canthus of the eye

Where should the beam be centered for a rostrocaudal closed mouth view of the frontal sinuses (90 degree)

Through center of frontal sinuses and between the eyes

How should the patient be positioned for a rostrocaudal closed mouth view of frontal sinuses?

Dorsal recumbency with neck flexed, nose pointing upwards, legs pulled caudally alongside body

Where should the beam be centered for a rostrocaudal closed mouth view of the cranium (rostral 30 degree DCdVO)

Mid point between the eyes

Where is the measurement taken for a rostrocaudal closed mouth view of the cranium?

Area of frontal sinuses

How should the patient be positioned for a rostrocaudal closed mouth view of the cranium?

Dorsal recumbency with neck flexed, more flexion than frontal sinus view

What is the patient positioning for VD open mouth view of the nasal cavity?

Dorsal recumbency with maxilla taped to table, pull mandible open with tie or mouth wedge

Where should the beam be centered for VD open mouth view of nasal cavity?

Through the third upper premolar

What is measured for a VD open mouth view of the nasal cavity?

Upper jaw over the upper third premolar

How should the tube head be angled for a VD open mouth view of nasal cavity?

20-30 degrees rostrocaudally

What is the field of view for a VD open mouth view of nasal cavity?

entire maxilla to pharynx

What is the patient positioning for a tympanic bullae (rostral 10-30 VCdDO) Rostrocaudal open mouth view?

Dorsal recumbency with the neck flexed, nose pointed upward, legs pulled caudally. Pull maxilla cranially 10 degrees and mandible caudally 10 degrees

Where should the beam be centered for a rostrocaudal open mouth view of tympanic bullae?

Base of neck to commissure of lips

What is the field of view for a rostrocaudal open mouth view of tympanic bullae?

Entire pharyngeal region with bullae isolated

What is patient positioning for lateral oblique view of tympanic bullae?

Lateral recumbency with good side down, limbs pulled caudally, head rolled into natural position for oblique

What view is good for TMJ?

Lateral oblique view of tympanic bullae

What is patient positioning for VD oblique view of TMJ?

Lateral recumbency with affected side down, head rotated at 20 degrees with wedge, mouth may be open or closed

Soft tissues are difficult to identify on plain films due to lack of contrast. How can we better view these tissues?

Using contrast medium or performing ultrasound

What are two benefits of survey films?

Help determine proper exposure and eliminate need for contrast

What agents are used for positive contrast?

Barium or Iodine

Positive contrasts have ____ atomic numbers than tissue and bone

Higher

What contrast can safely be administered into a blood vessel?

Iodine

How should kVp be increased with positive contrast?

6-8 kVp

What agents are used for negative contrast?

Gasses with low specific gravity

Barium causes _____ when left free in abdominal cavity

Peritonitis

Why are iodine compounds not used in GI studies?

They aren't thick enough to coat mucosa of the intestines

What is used in GI situations when perforations are suspected?

Iodine preparations

The higher the iodine concentration the more \_\_\_\_\_\_\_

contrast

Contrast preparation that is completely insolube therefore not diluted with alimentary secretions

Barium

What are BIPS?

Barium impregnated polyurethane spheres

Positive contrast agent that remains in spherical form, designed for transit time

BIPS

What is best used for negative contrast agents and why?

CO2 because it is rapidly absorbed

In a double contrast study which contrast should be administered first?

Negative contrast, to avoid air bubbles that mimic lesions

If necessary, what drug should be used to tranquilize patients in contrast studies?

Acepromazine

What drugs should be avoided when doing contrast studies?

Parasympathetic/anticholinergics ie. Atropine and glycopyrolate

What circumstances contraindicate the use of contrast studies?

Fluid filled distended stomach or esophagus Ruptured bowel Dysphagic patients Megaesophagus

Why are dysphagic patients or megaesophagus contraindicated for contrast studies?

Risk of aspiration

What is the ideal method for determining megaesophagus?

Esophagraphy

When is esophography indicated?

History of regurgitation or dysphagia

What is the technique used for esophagraphy?

Lateral recumbency, take survey radiographs, slowly administer product orally

What should the view of an esophograph be from?

From the pharynx to the stomach, multiple views during and after swallowing

What view should be taken first for an esophograph?

Lateral, and then ventral (never dorsal)

How should barium be given for an esophograph?

Give barium while laying down

What does a gastrophy evaluate?

Size, shape, position, function, and morphology of the stomach only

What is a gastrophy used for?

Vomiting, blood in vomit, anterior abdominal pain

For an upper GI study, fast the animal for _____ or ____ hours if for a small intestine

12 - 24 hours

What contrast is used for gastrophies?

Positive

What are the steps to completely evacuating large bowel?

Low residue food for 48 hours Fast 24 hours prior Pull water 4 hours prior Enema until clear

Negative LGI contrast studies diagnose what?

Intussusceptions in puppoes

What is used to evaluate renal structure, function and to visualize renal collection system?

Excretory urography

Excretory urography involved the IV injection of what?

A water soluble iodinated contrast agent

Diffuse opacification of the renal parenchyma as the contrast agent perfuses the renal vasculature

Nephrogram phase

What phase of urography demonstrates the presence of functional renal function

Nephrogram phase

In what urograph phase does the contrast agent filter into the renal collection system?

Pyelogram phase

What is the test dose for an excretory urography?

3-5 ml

What is the dose of contrast for an excretory urography?

300-400 mg/ml Dose 3 ml/kg rapid infusion for 1-3 minutes

Hematuria, Dysuria, pyuria, straining of urination and frequency of urination are indications for what?

Excretory Urography

When doing a cystography, which contrast should NEVER be used?

Barium

Fatal rare embolism with negative contrast is a complication associated with what?

Cystography

What uses negative or positive retrograde or antegrade contrast to detect urethral trauma, tears, tumors or obstructions?

Urethrography

What study consists of a positive contrast in a joint space?

Arthrography

What study consists of a positive contrast injected into blood vessels?

Angiography

Contrast given orally or IV that is concentrated in the bile and visualized in the gall bladder and biliary system

Cholecystography

CT and MRI are replacing what technique?

Myelography

Positive contrast injected into the subarachnoid space of the spine to highlight spinal cord lesions and prolapsed discs?

Myelography

What is the kVp preset for dentistry?

70 kVp

What is the mA preset for dentistry?

7-8 mA

What dental film size is used for individual teeth?

What dental film size is used to show teeth alignment or dental architecture?

What is the purpose of the foil on the back of the dental film?

Absorbs radiation

For small chairside darkroom dip tanks, developer for ___ seconds, ___ minutes for fixing, and ___ minutes rinsing

30 seconds, 1.5 minutes, 3 minutes

How many views are required for large animal skeletal radiographs?

4, or 6 for joints

What is the portable max mA and max kVp for large animals?

ma- 20 kVp-90

What is the max mA and kVp for mobile units in large animal?

mA 100-300 kVp- 120

What xray unit for large animals has shorter exposure times and more power?

Mobile unit

What features make birds more radiolucent?

Thin cortices and tubular bones

What are the three types of restraints used for avians and exotics?

Chemical, manual, physical

What is restrained first for a bird?

Head and torso

What is restrained last for birds?

legs

What is the average transit time for barium in a bird?

30-240 minutes

What species has the quickest transit time?

Small psittacines

What animals MUST be anesthetized?

Rabbits and guinea pigs

This effect is "all or nothing", increasing the dose will increase the possibility of effect but not the intensity, No threshold dose.

Stochastic

Radiation effect that has a predetermined threshold dose, immediate to time-delayed effects

Nonstochastic

What symptoms are associated with nonstochastic effects?

cataracts, cancer, hemopoietic, GI, CNS

What radiation interaction affects DNA?

Direct interaction

Which radiation interaction affecst the cell's ability to reproduce?

Indirect interaction

Transfer of incorrect genetic code to one of the daughter cells

Critical consequence

Ionization of water causes an effect on what?

Critical target

Free radical formation of ____ and ____ \_\_\_\_\_ is a major factor of damage to the cell

hydroperoxyl and hydrogen peroxide

What is the ALARA principle?

As Low As Reasonably Achieveable

What does LET stand for?

Linear Energy Transfer

A measure of the rate at which energy is transferred from ionizing radiation into soft tissue

LET

The higher the LET the ______ the amount of energy transferred to soft tissue per interaction

greater

Low kVp imparts higher amounts of \_\_\_\_\_

energy

What is responsible for the energy imparted to the photons?

Alpha and Beta particles have ___ LET with ___ penetrability

High, low

X and gamma radiation have ____ LET and ____ penetrability

Low, high

X and Gamma radiation have high ability to travel through matter while producing ____ effect on tissues they pass through

Less

The intensity of the radiation is inversely related to what?

The square of the distance

The ____ provides source for electrons and directs these electrons towards \_\_\_\_

Cathode, Anode

The ____ the atomic number, the more electrons are available for excitation

higher

Amount of electrical energy being applied to the filamet; describes number of X-Rays produced during exposure.

mA (milliamperage)

Acceleration is controlled by \_\_\_\_\_

\_\_\_\_\_\_ acts as a heat conductor and draws heat away from ______ target

Copper, tungsten

Which type of anode is found in dental and small portable units?

Stationary Anode

Large amounts of heat is a limitation of which anode?

Stationary

If target is damaged, may cause radiation to scatter in undesirable locations, this will cause _____ than expected xrays

Lighter

Rotating Anodes rotate through the ____ of the tube

Center

Rotation provides a _____ surface for the electron stream

Cooler

Rotating anodes help distribute _____ over a larger area

heat

\_\_\_\_\_ anode may have small focal spot but still withstand a great amount of heat

Rotating

More x-rays leave tube on ____ side

cathode

What can prevent anode target failure?

high kVps and low mA

What is kVp?

peak of energy which determines quality of xray beam

What is it called when metal deposits form on inner lining of glass due to overheating?

Arcing

What is the process of changing alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC)?

Rectification

What dictates the maximum combinations of kVp and mA without overloading the tube?

X-Ray tube rating

What are the four factors determining tube rating?

Focal spot size, Target angle, Anode speed, electrical current

If the film is too dark the mA's must be reduced to \_\_\_\_

50%

What is the first adjustment to contemplate if technique needs adjusted?

mAs

If the image is too dark and the kV is between 50 and 90, reduce kV by \_\_\_\_

15%

Blur also affects resolution by projecting the anatomic structures ____ from the focal plane

Away

The structures ____ and ____ a predefined level in the body are blurred so that the level of interest, the focal plane, can be visualized

above and below

When is distortion used effectively?

In dental imaging, oblique views and to locate foreign bodies

When is distortion unacceptable?

Stuctures to be measured for orthopoedic surgery, cardiac cases when heart-lung ratios must be measured, central ray positioned incorrectly

What is the magnification formula?

MF=SID/SOD

What does SID and SOD stand for?

Source Imaging Distance Source Object Distance

When is the magnification formula useful?

Bladder stones, kidney stones, heart-lung ratios

Illuminators must be clean and have a \_\_\_/\_\_\_ light

blue/white

80% of artifacts are caused by what?

Processing