Final Review Flashcards
Learn Review Questions and Topics (174 cards)
1
Q
What is the max concentrating ability of the Kidney?
A
1200 mosmol/L
2
Q
How much mandatory waste does the body produce?
A
600 mosmol/l
3
Q
What is the problem with drinking seawater?
A
It is 2400 mosmol/L and that would require you to excrete 2 L of liquid per each L you drink which dehydrates you. Also the MgSO4 creates urther problems. The magnesium does not allow the absorption of what which gives you the diareaha and dehydrates you further.
4
Q
Which cell produces acid?
A
Parietal Cell
5
Q
Where are Parietal Cells Located?
A
GI mucosa
6
Q
What are the main drivers for acid secretion?
A
Parasympathetic Nervous System, Gastrin, Histamine, cAMP.
7
Q
WHat is the equation for production of acid?
A
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 (Carbonic Acid) = H+ HCO3-
8
Q
From the equation of production of acid where is the proton pumped?
A
It is pumped into the GI lumen.
9
Q
Whatis the strong acid in the stomach? What combines with the H+ molecule to form it?
A
HCl. Cl-.
10
Q
Where does the Cl- come from in order to make stomach acid?
A
The chloride shift
11
Q
_______ is exchanged into blood plasma for Cl- into the __________.
A
HCO3- Parietal Cell
12
Q
Name 5 important GI hormones that help to regulate digestion.
A
Gastrin, GIP, Secretin, CCK, PZ
13
Q
Where is Gastrin secreted from and what does it do?
A
Secreted from endothelial cells (G cells) in the stomach. It increases GI motility and stomach acid production.
14
Q
Where is GIP secreted and what does it do?
A
GIP is secreted from the Small Intestine. It opposes the action of gastrin, it decreases the GI motility, and it decreases stomach acid production. The allowsthe small intestine time to digest and absorb nutrients.
15
Q
Where is Secretin secreted and what does it do?
A
Secretin is secreted from the Small Intestine. Secretin increases the alkaline pH juice from pancreas, neutralizing the acid from the stomach chime.
16
Q
Where is CCK secreted and what does it do?
A
CCK is secreted from the Small Intestine and it increases the gallbladder contraction and secretion of bile to emulsify fats.
17
Q
Where is PZ secreted and what does it do?
A
PZ is secreted from SI. It ubcreases enzyme secretion from pancreas , trypsin, lipase, amylase.
18
Q
What is Motilin responsible for?
A
Motilin is responsible for stimulating MMC (Migrating Motor Complex) otherwise known as peristalsis.
19
Q
Explain the livers role with plasma glucose maintenance.
A
Liver has a 24 hour storage place for glycogen which is where the supply for blood comes from in periods between meals.
20
Q
Explain the Livers role with cholesterol homeostasis.
A
Through action of HMG CoA reductase, manufacture cholestarol (needed for cell membranes) from fats………..Blocking this process if how Statin drugs work to lower blood cholestarol.
21
Q
Explain the livers role with red blood cell homeostasis.
A
Kupffer cells in the liver sinusoid break down the old red blood cells. The product from breaking down hemoglobin is Bilirubin which is then released in the blood stream. Hepatocytes take billirubin and reprocess that into Bile for fat emulsification.
22
Q
Explain livers role in digestion.
A
Bile that is produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder helps with the emulsification of fat in the GI tract.
23
Q
Explain the Livers role in blood clotting.
A
Pothrombin and Fibrinogen are made by the liver which are important blood clotting factors.
24
Q
Explain the Livers role in Calcium Homeostasis.
A
Vit D3 is made by the skin exposure of cholestarol to UV light, further modified by Liver into 25 hydroxycholecalciferol, then by the kideny to make final 1, 25 dihydroxycholecalciferol.
25
Explain the Livers role in Body Growth.
Primary action of Growth HOrmone is IGFs ( Interstital growth factora or somatomedins) produced by Liver in response to GH release by Anterior Pituitary Gland.
26
Explain the Livers role in excretion.
The liver is responsible for adding conjugates to waste products and toxins that are then recognized and excreted by the kidney.
27
What is the role of the hypothalsmus in regulation of body metabolism by the thyroid gland?
Thyroid gland is regulated by the Hypothalamus (THR). stimulating TSH release from Anterior Pituitary.
28
What is the role of the pituitary in the regulation of body metabolism by the thyroid gland?
The Anterior pituitary released TSH, with the target being the thyroid gland to release Thyroxin.
29
What is Thyroxin?
Thyroxin is an Amine HOrmone and require Tyrosine and Iodine for manufacture , active form is T3 (but low levels in blood), inactive form is T4 (high levels in blood).
30
What is the role of Iodine in the regulation of body metabolism by the thyroid gland?
Iodine is essential for thyroglobulin production and gland will hypertrophy (enlarge) if iodine intake is too low, resulting in a "Goiter"
31
What is a "Goiter" and are they common today?
A goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid gland due to insufficient intake of Iodine. GOiters are rare today due to iodine being added to table salt.
32
What is Hasimoto's disease?
It is Hyperthyroidism, autoimmune disease where antibodies destroy the thyroid gland gland, symptoms include lower metabolism, cold clammy skin, weight gain, slow mental capacity, lack of energy and engagement.
33
What is Graves Disease?
It is a hyper thyroidism autoimmune disease, but antibodies stimulate the thyroid hormone output. Diagnostics include increased metobolism, weight loss, hyperactiviy, warm skin, fast , but distracted mental affect, exopthalmis (protruding eyes)
34
What are follicular cells and what are their role in the regulation of body metabolism by the thyroid gland?
Follicular cells of thyroid manufacture a storage form of thyroxine called thyroglobulin, stored in the colloid. Follicular cells will also regulate the slow release of thyroxine from thyroglobulin colloid.
35
What is the colloid and what is its role in the regulation of metabolism by the thyroid gland?
The colliod is where a storage form of thyroxine called thyroglobulin is stored.
36
Explain the regulation of calcium homeostasis by the body.
Blood clacium is essential for skeletal muscle function, cardiac function, smooth muscle function, and release of neurotransmitters from nervous system
37
What cells are involved in the calcium homeostasis of the body?
C cells make Calcitonin, lowers plasma calcium, stimulates osteoblast cellsto deposit calcium on bone.
38
What endocrine glands regulate calcium homeostasis?
Parathyroid gland, and the thyroid gland. THe parathyroid gland makes PTH (parathyroid Hormone) necessary for lifr, raises plasma Ca++, stimulates osteoclasts and bone reabsorption. Theyroid gland, C cells make calcitonin, lowers plasma calcium. stimulate osteonlast cells to deposit calcium on bone.
39
What 3 hormones are essential in the regulation of calcium homeostasis by the body?
Parathyroid Hormonel, Calcitonin, Vitamin D3
40
Discuss the regulation of glucose homeostasis by the pancreas.
Glucose homeostasis function of interplay between diet, insulin (insulin, glucagon) and targets including liver, muscle, and fat. From the Pancreas: Alpha, Beta, Delta and F cells.
41
Whar are the role of Alpha cells from the pancreas in the regulation of glucose homeostasis?
Aloha Cells: Release glucagon, raises plasma glucose
42
What are the role of beta cells in the regulation of glucose homeostasis?
Beta Cells release insulin and lower plasma glucose
43
WHat are the role of Delta cells in the regulation of glucose homeostasis by the pancreas?
Delta Cells are regulatory, release somatostatin, which shuts down insulin and glucagon release by pancreas.
44
What are the role of F cells in the regulation of glucose homeostasis by the pancreas?
F cells: Pancreatic polypeptide which helps hypothalamus realize satiety (stop eating)
45
What is meant by the idea the body favors insulin secretion? Why is this important for long-term health maintenance for the body?
Body is pro insulin, lowering blood sugar and lowering oxidative stress. Evidence is insulin release tends to be sustained, does not increase glucagon releae directly, but glucagon release will result in insulin release.
46
Compare and Contrat type 1 and type 2 diabetes in terms of age affected, risk factors, insulin production, and treatments.
Type 1: related to still unidentified infections or immune system repsonses, prime ages 5-15 years, autoimmune where immune system tricked to attach Beta cells of pancreas and eliminate insuline production. Type one Diabetes must inject insulin in order to maintain glucose homeostasis and have low carb diet and activity arranged around their insulin injections. Type 2: genetic basis, tends to run in families, strongly linked to obesity, tends to be over age 35 years, although obesity eipdemis is making some cases as early as late teens. An insulin receptor problem, pancreas produces insulin, but insulin is not active at receptor level. Treatment is idealy diet and exercise, often losing 10-20lbs can cause disease resolution, also sulfonalureal drugs that augmetn output of insulin by pancreas.
47
Discuss a longer-term indicator of oxidative stress and 3 newer, non-sulin drug classes, that are being used to treat the disease.
New Treatment for Type 2 include: SGLT inhibitors which block kidney reabsorption of filtered sugar. Metformins which enhance receptor action of insulin at target tissue at Glut 4 receptors. Byetta (GLP-1 Recepetor) which augment Beta cell output of insulin, slows glycogen release into glucose by liver.
48
Discuss the role of FSH and LH in females on specific targets in the ovary.
FSH: stimulates division of granulosa cells of growing follicle in ovary. FH: Simulates production of estrogen by granulosa of follicular cells in ovary.
49
Explain how birth control pills regulate this hormone cycle and prevent preganacy.
Birth control pills work by low dose of estrogen suppressing release of LH, FSH by anterior pituitaryd gland, thereby slowing growth and development of ovarian follicles at opportune point in time, technically prevent implantation, not necessarily conception.
50
Discuss the role of FSH vs LH in males on specific targets in the testis.
FSH: Target is Sertoli Cell of testis, which has nursing and maturation function for developing spermatozoa FH: target is Leydig Cell (INterstital Cell) of testis to produce testosterone.
51
What is the difference between spermatogonia, primary, secondary spermatocytes, and spermatids, and Spermatozoa? In which stage of mitosis or meiosis are these cells?
In a process known as spermatogenesis, spermatogonia, mitotically divide to produce Primary spermatocytes (1) which undergo meiosis I to produce seconday spermatocytes (2), which undergo meiosis II to produce spermatids (4). Spermatids undergo Spermiogenesis (morphology change, no cell division) to grow flagella, make lytic acrosome cap, discharge excess cytoplasm to become streamlined
52
How would increasing K+ Permeability effect the resting membrane potential?
Increase in K+ permeability on resting cell hyperpolarizes the cell.
53
How would increasing extracellular [Na+] effect resting membrane potential?
INcreasing [Na+] on resting cell would have no significant change due to very low overall permeability.
54
What effect would decreasing extracellular [Na+] have on action potential amplitude?
Decreasing [Na+] on action potential: lowers amplitude of the spike, less conc differential to drive spike.
55
What effect would increasing intracellular [K+] have on action potential amplitude?
Increasing [K+] on action potential : no significance change due to relatively low K+ permeability vs high Na+ permeability.
56
What effect would increasing Cl- permeability have on resting membrane potential?
Increasing Cl- Perm on resting cell: hyperpolarizes the cell, Cl- moves into cell.
57
List the 4 tunics in the construction of the GI system and how they change for major GI organs .
Tunica Mucosa-Inner most layer ......Tunica Submucosa......Tunica Muscularis.......Tunica Serosa.
58
Understand long and short reflex innervation.
Long Reflex innervation connects different regions of GI tract together also connects system with CNS. Vagus Nerve (ACh) is a major stimulator (PArasympathic portion of the ANS) Serotonin also stimulates activation of Meissners and Auerbachs Plexus. Splanchnic Nerves (Sympathetic Fibers) are inhibitory, use NE and E...........Short Reflex innervation mediated through nerves confined to GI tract stimuli such as chemicals, hormones, distention acivate exocrine glands along tract. activate smooth muscle in tract.
59
Understand the important tole of the Liver in Carbohydrate, fat, and cholestarol homeostasis, clotting factor manufacture and bile production.
Liver produces bile which is stored in the gallbladder which hleps to emulsify fat. 24 hour supply for glycogen, the main meal source for blood sugar between meals. through the action of HMG COa reductase, manufacture cholestarol (Needed for cell membrames) from fat; blocking this processis how statin drugs work to lower cholestarol. Kupffer cells in the liver sinusoid (marcophages like cell) break down old red blood cells. Breakdown product of hemoglobin is Bilirubin, which is released into the bloodstrea,. Hepatocytes take bilirubin and process that into Bile for fat emulsification in GI tract. Bile is produced by liver, only stored and concentrated by gallbladder, this emulsifies fats in GI tract. Important blood clotting agents like prothrombin and Fibrinogen are made by the liver. Vit D3 is made by skin exposure of cholestarol to UV light, further modified by Liver into 25 hydroxycholecalciferol, then by Kidney to make final 1, 25 dihydroxycholecalciferol. Primary action of growth hormone is IGFs (interstital growth factors or somatomedins) produced by liver in response to GH release by anterior pituitary Gland. Liver Responsible for adding conjugates to waste products and toxins that are then recognized and excreted by the kidney.
60
Understand the important role of the Pancreas as exocrine gland for digestion.
Pancreas secretes Amylase which breaks down carbohydrates. It secretes trypsin which helps break down proteins and it secretes lipase which helps to break down fats.
61
Describe the important role of the pancreas as endocrine gland for glucose homeostasis.
Glucose homeostasis function of interplay between diet, insulin (Insulin, glucagon) and targets including liver, muscle, and fat. From pancreas: Alpha cells that release glucagon, raises plasma glucose. Beta Cells that release insulin which lowers plasma glucose. Delta cells that are regulatory, they release somatostatin which shuts down insulin and glucgon release by pancreas and F cells which secrete Pancreatic Polypeptides whcih helps hypothalamus realize satiety (stop eating)
62
Understand the major role of the major GI organs (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) in food transport, digestion, absorption, and water balance.
Esophagus is to move the food down to the stomach. The stomach is there to break up the food and possibly absorb some nutrients the small intestine is mainly to absorb nutrients and to reabsorb the majority of the water and the large intestine is to absorb the last 10 percent of the water that needs to be reabsorbed.
63
What is the source, function, and target of each of these GI hormones? Gastrin, GIP, Secretin, CCK-PZ, Motilin, Gherilin, Leptin, Insulin,
Gastirn is from endocrine cells (G cels) in stomach it increases motility and stomach acid production. GIP is from the SI , opposes action of Gastrin, decreases motility and stomach acid production gives SI time to digest and absorb nutrients. Secretin fro the SI increases the alkaline pH juice from the pancreas, neutralizing acid from the stomach chime. CCK from the small intestine increases the gallbladder contraction and secretion of bile to emulsify fats. PZ from SI increases enzyme secretion from the pancreas, trypsin, lipase and amylase. Motillin is responsible for stimulating MMC ( migrating motor complex) otherwise known as peristalsis. Gherilin, Leptin, Insulin. Insulin and Leptin feed back to the hypothalamus, causing decreased food intake (stimulate stiety center) and increasd catabolic pathway ctivity Leptin is viewed as a fat buring hormine. Ghrelin is an orexin which is released by the hypothalamus in response to low blood sugar and increase appetite. Ghrelin is also released by the stomach itself. This hormone is thought to be responsible for hunger stimulation and the release of GI activation/stimulation hormones such as Gastrin.
64
Understand the key functions for cell subsets in stomach.
Mucosa: Secretion- mucosa, acid, digestive enzymes. Absorption-water, alcohol, drugs(aspirin). Folds called Rugae. Simple Columnar Epithilium. Gastric pits: Stomach Glands, Contain specialized cells, "Chyme" is a liquid mixture from glands. 1.Mucous Neck cells 2. Parietal Cells 3.Chief Cells. 4. G cells of APUD 5. Enterochromaffin Cells 6. D cells.
65
Describe Mucous Neck Cells
Mucous production (protection)
66
Describe parietal cells.
HCl acid production, intrinsic Factor (Vit B12 absorption) Pernicous Anemia.
67
Describe Chief Cells
Pepsinogen -(w/acid activates to)- pepsin, protein digestion, importnat because could autolyse cell
68
Describe G cells or APUD
(AMine precursor uptake decarboxlase) Gastrin Production, Activated by food in stomach, released in blood, increased acid secretion by parietal cells, increased GI motility.
69
Describe Enterochromaffin Cells
Histamine production, acid secretion stimulator
70
Describe D Cells.
Somatostatin Production (ALso oancreatic D cells), acid secretion inhibitor
71
Understand the key functions for cell subsets in Small Intestine.
Tunica Mucosa specialized for absorption. 1. Simple columnar Epithelium w/microbilli 2. Arranged in Villi, artery, capillary, vein, lymphatic=lacteal for fat absorption 3. Plica Circularis: Folds of mucosa and submucosa. Intestinal Glands at base of Villi (Crypts of Lieberkuhn): Enterendocrine cells (hormones) / Paneth Cells: produce lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme) Hormone production: GIP-Gastric, CCK-PZ, Secretin, Motolin, VIP.
72
Describe GIP-Gastrin inhibitory Peptide.
Release due to duodenal filling, acid. Inhibits GI motility and acid production. Gives time for absorption in the SI
73
Describe CCK-PZ Cholecystokinin-Pancreozymin.
release due to duodenal filling, acid especially protein and fat. Inhibits GI motility, stimulates Gall Bladder contraction and stimulates pancreatic secretion (digestive enzymes)
74
Describe Secretin.
Release due to acid in duodenum, stimulates bicarbonaterelease from pancreas, makes intestine basic which shuts down its secretion.
75
Describe Motilin.
Responsible for MMC (Migrating motor Complex), a peristaltic wave from esophagus to large intestine, during interdigestive period, emptys stomach.
76
Describe VIP
Decreases smooth muscle motility, dilation of peripheral vessels, inhibition of acid secretion.
77
Understand the key functions for cell subsets in the pancreas.
Exocrine and Endocrine functions. Tunica mucosa: mostly simple columnar but stratified squamous at rectom: Taenia Coli: rope-like thickening of longitudinal muscle. Haustra: "puckered" Pouches that form as a result distension of one haustra causes propulsion of contents into next haustra
78
List 3 general classes of hormones in the endocrine system.
Protein Hormones, Amine, Steroid
79
Give examples of Peptide + Amine hormone action.
1. cAMP mechanism 2. IP3/DAG Mechanism 3. Direct Membrane Calcium Channel Activation
80
Give Examples of Sterois Hormone Action
Can activate membrane receptors/activate cytoplasmic and nucleus receptors/activate genes (Transcription/Translation)/trigger protein synthesis.
81
Concept of hypothalamus as a major endocrine regulator.
Hypothalamus regulatory hormones (CRH,GnRH, etc) Control of system: Hypothalamus - GHRH+Somatostatin TRH from hypothalamus stimulates TSH from ant. pit.
82
Negative feedback loop inhibition of the endocrine system:
SHort feedback inhibition to anterior pit suppresses TSH Long Loop feedback inhibition to hypothalamus to suppress TRH
83
List 3 Adrenal Clinical Correlations
Cushing's Syndrome, Addison's Disease, Conn's Syndrome
84
Describe Cushing's Syndrome
excessive cortisol production, muscle atrophy, osteoporosis, thin skin w/blood vessles visible, accumulation of fat in abdomen, capilary rupture and striae
85
Describe Addison's Disease
Lack of Adrenocotical function, anorexia, fatigue, hpoglycemia, poor stess tolerance, lack of negative feedback from adrenal hormones on pituitary casuses hypersecretion of ACTH, excessive ACHTH stimulates melanocytes, causing localized dark skin pigmentation on the body.
86
Conn's Syndrome
Primary hyperaldosteronism, adrenal tumor or over secretion of aldosterone from the Zona Glomerulosa results in : elevated blood pressure, K+ depletion and muscle weakness
87
What are the Permeability values for K+, Na+ and Cl- in the cell membrane during resting state and during ecitation state?
Resting: Pk=1, Cl-=.45, Na+=.04 Excited State: Pk=1, Cl-=.45, Na+=20.00
88
What is a normal Tidal Volume for human lungs?
500 ml
89
What is a normal Residual Volume for Human Lungs?
1200ml
90
What is the equation for Total Lung Volume?
TLV=IRV+TV+ERV+RV
91
What is the equation for Vital Capacity?
VC=IRV+TV+ERV
92
WHat is the equation for Functional Residual Capacity?
FRC=ERV + RV
93
What are the clearance equations and the specific Tg that are involved with glucose and PaH?
Clearance = GFR(Px) (minus reabsortion or Add secretion) all divided by Px reabsorption for glucose is 375 mg and secretion for Pah is 80mg
94
What is the equation for filtered substance?
GRF x P
95
What is Ondine's Curse?
Not being able to breath involuntarily such as when you are asleep.
96
What is the equation for blood pressure?
systolic/diastalic
97
What is a normal blood pressure?
120/80
98
What is the Anion gap?
a measurement of the interval between the sum of "routinely measured" cations minus the sum of the "routinely measured anions" in the blood. Anion gap = (Na+K) -(Cl+HCO3)
99
What would be the change in anion gap under metabolic acidocis?
Elevated Anion Gap
100
What would be the change in inulin clearance with metabolic acidosis?
Renal clearance, by definition, is always constant.
101
Describe the change in Atrial Natriuretic Peptide Secretion with an increase in blood pressure and increase in blood volume.
The ANP secretion is increased.
102
What are the normal values for pH, PCO2 and HCO3 during an arterial blood gas analysis?
Normal Ph is 7.4 /normal PCO2 is 40/ Normal HCO3 is 24
103
List the 5 major brain divisions.
1. Telencephalon 2. Diencephalon 3. Mesencephalon 4.Metencephalon 5.Myelencephalon
104
Where is the Telencephalon located and what are its functions?
Functions are smell, sight, hearing, taste, touch, speech, body motor and sensory control, cognitive reasoning. It contains the rhinencephalon which is the sense of smell with the olfactory lobes, bulbs, and tracts. It is the cerebral hemispheresL Gray matter outer, white matter inner. Gyrus, sulcus, corpus collosum, Lateral Ventricles.
105
Where is the Diencephalon located and what are its functions?
Integration of areas to the cerebrum. The hypothalamus and thalamus. the third ventricle, pineal gland, optic chiasm. Area of brain Nuclei for various body function and control. Area for regulation such as hunger, thirst, temperature, hormone control. Area for circadian rhythm.
106
Where is the Mesencephalon located and what are it's functions?
Midbrain. Corpora Quadrigemina . Superior and inferior colliculi. Eye and head movements for vision. Head and trunk movements for hearing. Cerbral penducles. Cerebral Aqueduct.
107
Where is the Metencephalon located and what are its functions?
Cerebelum: coordinates musclemovement maintains equilibrium and posture, gray outer, white inner,/ Fourth Ventricle, Foramen of Magendi, Luschka, central canal for the spinal cord.
108
Where is the myelencephalon and where is it located?
Medulla Oblongats: COntrol of Basal body function heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressurem etc.
109
List the 12 cranial nerves.
I. Olfactory II. Optic. III. Oculomotor. IV. Trochlear. V. Trigeminal VI. Abducens. VII. Facial VIII Auditory or Vestibulocochlear IX Glossopharyngeal X Vagus. XI Accessory. XII Hypoglossal
110
What is the function of the Olfactory Nerve?
Sensory only, smell sensation
111
What is the function of the optic nerve?
Sensory only, SIght sensation
112
What is the function of the oculomotor nerve?
Motor only, to most extrinsic eye muscle (except the superior oblique, lateral rectus muscle) also motor to iris and ciliary bosy for accomodation.
113
What is the function of the Trochlear nerve?
Motor only to superior oblique of eye.
114
What is the function of the trigeminal nerve?
Sensory (Major role) to eye, upper palate, teeth, jaw, mastacation muscles, general sensation of tongue not taste, motor to mastication muscles. Three Branches: Opthalmic (sensory to eye) Maxillary (sensory to upper jaw) Mandibular (Sensory to lower jaw, tongue)
115
What is the function of the abducens nerve?
Motor only to lateral rectus muscle of eye
116
What is the function of the facial nerve?
Motor (major role) to muscles of facial expression, salivary glands sensory from tongue taste buds (anterior 2/3), face and scalp.
117
What is the function of the Auditory or vestibuloochlear?
Sensory only. Cochlear branch : Sensory for hearing Vestibular Branch: Sensory for balanc and equilibrium, from semicircular canals, utricle, saccule.
118
What is the function of the Glossopharyngeal Nerve?
Motor for swallowing, salivary glands, sensory from throat, blood pressure regulation, taste in rear 1/3 of tongue
119
What is the function of the Vagus nerves?
Motor to throat (swallowing), heart, lungs, GI tract, sensory from same areas, deep taste from throat.
120
WHat is the function of the Accessory nerves?
Motor to trapezius, sternocleidomastoid muscles
121
What is the function of the hypoglossal Nerve?
Motor to tongue.
122
List the 5 anatomical regions in the spinal cord
1. cervical Nerves (C1-C8) 2. Thorasic Nerves (T1-T12) 3. Lumbar Nerves (L1-L5 4. Sacral Nerves (S1-S5) and 5.Coccygeal Nerves (1)
123
List 9 important neurtransmitters/categories.
Acetylcholine (ACh) , Norepinephrine, Epinephrine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Histamine, Amino Acids, Neuropeptides, Gases.
124
What are the 2 types of receptors for ACh?
Cholinergic. Nicotinic.
125
What is the general action of ACh?
parasympathetic stimulation (cardiac rate inhibitor, lower BP, GI Stimulation), neurotransmitter for the neuromuscular junction.
126
What degrades ACh?
ACetylcholinesterase
127
What is Sarin?
Nerve Gas - AChE inhibtor. Does not let ACh degrade. Die by asphixiation.
128
How to save yourself from sarin?
2 part injection. Atropine (blocks ACh stimulation) Pralidoxime (regenerates bound AChEase)
129
How does botox work?
prevents ACh release.
130
What does ALzheimers have to do with ACh?
The ACh synthesis is down.
131
List two sets of Adrenerigic receptors.
Alpha and Beta
132
List all Alpha receptors
alpha 1 and alpha 2
133
List all Beta Receptors
Beta 1, Beta 2, and Beta 3
134
Which adrenergic receptors have a great affinity for NE?
Alpha
135
What adrenergic receptors have a great affinity for E?
Beta
136
What is the function of the alpha 1 receptor?
stimulate contraction of smooth muscle, especially in vessels, sympathetic nerve tract, increase IP3
137
What is the function of Alpha 2 Receptors?
Stimulates the contraction of smooth muscle in the blood vessels and inhibits the smooth muscle contration in GI tract more common in GI tract, pancreas, decrease cAMP
138
What is the function of Beta 1 receptors?
Stimulates the Heart rate, contractility, also kidney, Fat Lypolisi, increase cAMP.
139
What is the function of Beta 2 receptors?
inhibits (relaxes) smooth muscle, increase cAMP especially in lung heart skeletal muscle blood vessels.
140
What is the function of Beta 3 receptors?
Fat exclusively, lipolysis, increase cAMP
141
Where is the heart located?
Pericardial Sac in the Mediastinal Cavity
142
What is GnRH in the Male reproductive system?
It is a Gonadal peptide releaseing hormone from the hypothalamus that stimulates the release of LH and FSH from the ant.pit. ...... It has a pulsatile release. Especially through thte course of the night.
143
What is GnRH in the female reproductive system and what does it do?
GNRH is a gonadal peptide releasing hormone that comes from the hypothalamus and stiulates the ant. pit. ....The allows the release of LH and LSH and further on down the line estrogen
144
HOw many days is the female menstrual cycle?
28 Days
145
When does ovulation occur?
The 14th day
146
When does the proliferative phase occur/last?
Days 5-14
147
When does the secretory phase occur/last?
Days 14-28
148
What is HCG? And why is it important?
It is Human Chorionoic Gonadotropin. This is hormone that is the basis of all preganancy test. It is was gets produced by the embryo and it stays in the corpus luteum. For the first 90 days them woman produces it for the placenta, but after that the placenta reaches critical mass and produces its own progesterone.
149
What is corpus luteum?
Corpus Luteum produces Progesterone and Estrogen . The rolel of corpus luteum depends on whether or not fertilation occurs.
150
Outline the process of oogenesis
Oogonium Multiplication into 2 primary oocyte, meiosis 1, primary follicle-seconday follice, graffian follicle, secondary oocyte meiosisII begun at ovulation and finished at fetiliaztion. Fetilized ovum.
151
What happens to the stroke volume of the left ventricle with an increase in preload?
It also increases.
152
What happens to the stroke volume with an increase in afterload?
It also increase.
153
What happens to the stroke volume and peak pressure of the left ventricle with an increase in contractillity?
The both increase.
154
Define tachycardia.
This is where your heart beat is faster than normal during rest.
155
What is the human normal BPM?
It is 72 BPM.
156
What is the equation for stroke volume?
EDV-ESV
157
What is the equation for max heart rate?
New 208-(0.7 x age in years) Old 220 - age in years
158
What is the difference between left heart failure and right heart failure?
Left heart failure means that it is congestive and that fluid is accumulating in the lungs. Right heart failure means that it can lead to edema in the tissue. (edema means swelling)
159
What is bradycardia?
This is a slower than normal heart rate while at rest.
160
Define 1st degree heart block.
Constant prolonged PR intervals.
161
Define 2nd degree heart block. Mobitz I vs Mobitz 2.
Mobitz 1 or wenkebach the PR interval gets progressivley longer before a QRS interval is dropped. Mobitz II - Pr interval is consistently elongated and then a QRS complex is dropped.
162
Define 3rd degree heart block.
A 3rd degree heart block is where the atria and the ventricles contract independent of one another. They both work and that they both squeeze but there is no connection between them. Constant P-P intervals and Constant Q-Q intervals. P waves may be burried in QRS complexes because there may be some overlap.
163
Define cardiac infarction.
There is a definite ST Elevation. In the EKG.
164
What is the effect of ADH on blood pressure?
Decrease.
165
What is the effect of NE on blood pressure?
Increase blood pressure.
166
What effect does E have on Blood pressure?
Increase.
167
What is the equation for Ejection Fraction?
SV/EDV
168
What causes Metabolic Acidosis?
Gastro-Intestinal loss, Renal Loss, Dilution Acisosis. Severe Diareaha
169
What causes respiratory Acidosis?
Decrease in respiratory rate or volume. Impaired respiratory drive or airflow restriction.
170
What causes Metabolic Alkalosis?
Lots of vomiting, hypovolemia, diuretic use, and hypokalemia.
171
What causes Respiratory Alkalosis?
hyperventilation. heart attack. pain. drug use. asthma. fever. chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. infection. pulmonary embolism
172
What 3 pressure control Respiration?
Intra Aveolar Pressure, Intra thorasic Pressure, Elastic Recoil Pressure
173
What does aldosterone do?
Aldosterone causes an increase in salt and water reabsorption into the bloodstream from the kidney thereby increasing th blood volume, restoring salt levels and blood pressure. A decrease in aldosterone woul help to exrete urine and reduce blood volume.
174
What is the normal pressure for PO2?
Should be between 95-100 mm HG
