Forensic Psychology Flashcards

Question

What is the Historical explanation for offending behaviour?

Answer 1

Proposed by Lombroso in 1876. He argued that criminals were 'genetic throwbacks' - a primitive subspecies of humans who lacked evolutionary development and were therefore biologically different to ordinary, non-offenders. Due to a lack of evolutionary development, members of this subspecies were savage and untamed, which made it difficult for them to adapt to society and its norms. As a result, they turn to crime. Lombroso saw offending as a natural tendency, rooted in the genes. It is innate, so the offender can't be blamed for their actions.

Answer 2

Lombroso also argued that the offender subtype could be identified by a range of atavistic features. These are biologically determined, physiological markers. They are mainly cranial and facial.

Answer 3

. Narrow, sloping brow . Strong, prominent jaw . High cheekbones . Facial asymmetry

Answer 4

. Dark skin . Extra toes . Extra nipples . Extra fingers

Answer 5

. Insensitivity to pain . Use of slang . Tattoos . Unemployment

Answer 6

Lombroso suggested certain types of criminal eg. murderer, rapist could be identified by their physical characteristics, which varied from crime to crime. Murderers - bloodshot eyes, curly hair, long ears, hawklike nose Sexual deviants - glinting eyes, swollen and fleshy lips, projecting ears Fraudsters - thin and reedy lips Women who committed crimes of passion had prominent lower jaws

Answer 7

. Examined the facial and cranial characteristics of 383 dead convicts and 3839 living convicts - all Italian From this, he concluded that there was an 'atavistic form', and that all these features were indicators of criminality He concluded that 40% of criminal acts were committed by people with atavistic features

Answer 8

Lombroso has been hailed as 'the father of modern criminology' (Hollin 1989), and is credited with shifting focus in crime research away from a moralistic discourse, and towards a scientific position, where offenders are not condemned as evil and weak-minded, but a product of their biology. Also, his attempt to link particular features to types of crime has been seen as the beginning of offender profiling. The suggests that Lombroso's atavistic form theory has had major impacts in the development of criminology.

Answer 9

The question has been raised of whether the impacts of Lombroso's work have been entirely positive. DeLisi (2012) drew attention to the racist undertones of Lombroso's theory. Many of the features Lombroso identified as 'criminal', such as curly hair or dark skin, are likely to be found in people of African descent. Lombroso was essentially suggesting that people of African descent were more likely to be offenders, a view in line with 19th century eugenic attitudes. This suggests that his theory is both highly subjective and outdated, based on racial prejudices of the time

Answer 10

- Evidence contradicts the link between atavism and crime - Goring (1913) attempted to establish whether there was a link between atypical physical features and offending. He compared 3000 offenders and 3000 non-offenders, and concluded that there was no evidence to suggest offenders were a distinct group with unusual facial and cranial characteristics, though he did suggest that many offenders had lower than average intelligence. This challenges the idea that offenders can be physically distinguished from the population, and contradicts the view that they are a primitive subspecies, weakening the very concepts the atavistic form theory is based on.

Answer 11

Lombroso's methods of investigation were poorly controlled, failing to control important research variables. Notably, he did not use a non-criminal control group, meaning a lack of control over confounding variables and an inability to explain causal relationships - the features described may have been present in both the criminal and non-criminal population, or in the criminal population alone, but this cannot be discerned from Lombroso's Italian convict study. This shows Lombroso's research to be limited, as it does not meet modern scientific standards.

Answer 12

Genetic explanations for crime suggest that would - be offenders inherit particular genes, or combinations of genes, which predispose them to commit crime

Answer 13

. Christiansen (1977) studied over 3500 twin pairs in Denmark. This included all twins born between1880 and 1910 in a region of Denmark. He found concordance rates for offender behaviour of: 35% for identical (Mz) twins (male) 13% for non identical (Dz) twins (male) (with slightly lower rates for females) Offender behaviour was checked against Danish police records, and data indicated that it was not just behaviour that might be inherited, but underlying predisposing traits . Crowe (1972) found that adopted children whose biological mother had a criminal record had a 50% of having one themselves vs 5% of adoptees with non-criminal biological mothers

Answer 14

Tiihonen et.al (2015) conducted a genetic analysis of 800 Finnish offenders He suggested that two genes may be associated with violent crime - MAOA gene, which regulates serotonin in the brain, and has been linked to aggressive behaviour - CDH13 gene, which has been linked to substance abuse and ADHD (Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) The analysis found that 5-10% of severe violent crimes in Finland were attributable to the MAOA and CDH13 genotypes

Answer 15

It argues that if genetics do have some influence on offending, it is likely that this is at least partially moderated by the effects of the environment. A tendency towards offending behaviour may be the result of a combination between genetic predisposition and a biological/psychological trigger. Potential triggers could be being raised in a dysfunctional environment, having criminal role models

Answer 16

Neural explanations for crime focus on neural differences between the brains of offenders and non-offenders. It explains behaviours in terms of dysfunctions of the brain and nervous system. Research often focuses on APD (Antisocial Personality Disorder)

Answer 17

Antisocial personality disorder - Formally referred to as psychopathy, involves reduced emotional responses, a lack of empathy for the feelings of others. It is present in many convicted offenders

Answer 18

. Suggests APD is associated with reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex . Raine et.al (2000) - conducted brain imaging studies on people with APD. He found an 11% reduction in grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of individuals with APD compared to the control group . The prefrontal cortex is involved in regulating emotional behaviour

Answer 19

. Recent research suggests that offenders with APD can feel empathy, but do so more sporadically than others . Keysers (2011) - found that only when offenders were asked to empathise with a person depicted on film experiencing pain did their empathy reaction activate. This reaction is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain . This suggests that people with APD aren't without empathy, but may have an 'empathy switch' that can be turned on and off, unlike the 'normal' brain which has the empathy switch on permanently.

Answer 20

Mednick et.al (1984) conducted a study of 13,000 Danish adoptees. When neither the adoptive or biological parents had criminal convictions, the percentage of children with convictions was 13.5%. This figure rose to 20% when either biological parent had convictions, and again to 24.5% when both adoptive and biological parents had convictions. This shows that genetic inheritance plays an important role in offending, but that environmental factors are also important, supporting a diathesis-stress model of crime.

Answer 21

- Twin studies may be a limited evidence base, as they require the assumption of equal environments - Researches using twin studies assume that environmental factors are consistent for both twins, as they are brought up together. However this may not always be the case, especially for dizygotic twins. Where monozygotic twins look identical, so are more likely to be treated the same by parents and peers, DZ twins do not and may be treated differently according to their appearance. This would, in turn, affect their behaviour. Higher concordance rates for MZ twins may not be because of genetics, but because of similar treatment. This challenges the internal validity of the genetic explanation, as it cannot be determined if it is genetic or environmental similarity being assessed.

Answer 22

Research support for the link between crime and the frontal lobe - Kandel and Freed (1989) reviewed evidence of frontal lobe damage (including to the prefrontal cortex), which is associated with planning behaviour. They found that people with such damage tended to display impulsive behaviour, emotional instability, and an inability to learn from their mistakes. This strengthens the idea that brain damage may be a causal factor in offending behaviour.

Answer 23

- The link between neural differences and Antisocial Personality Disorder may be more complex than the genetic explanation suggests. Farrington et.al (2006) studied a group of men who scored highly for psychopathy, and found that these individuals had experienced several risk factors in childhood. These included being raised by a convicted parent and being physically neglected. It could be that these early childhood experiences caused APD, and the neural differences associated with it, rather than neural dysfunctions causing APD. This suggests that the relationship between neural differences, APD, and offending is not as simplistic as the neural explanation suggests, with a causal relationship not necessarily as clear. Intervening variables may have an effect, suggesting an interactionist approach may be more appropriate. - Biologically deterministic explanation

Answer 24

. Eysenck's criminal personality . Cognitive . Differential association theory . Psychodynamic

Answer 25

Eysenck proposed that personality could be represented along 3 dimensions: introversion-extraversion, neuroticism-stability (1947) and psychoticism-sociability (added later). He suggested that the criminal personality was a combination of all 3: neurotic-extravert-psychotic As he believed personality has an innate, biological basis (based on the type of nervous system we inherit) criminality also has a biological basis

Answer 26

. Individuals who have an underactive nervous system, which leads to them constantly seeking excitement and stimulation . This in turn leads to them taking part in risk-taking behaviours . They also tend to not condition easily, so don't learn from their mistakes

Answer 27

. Individuals who have a high level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system, meaning they respond quickly to situations of threat (fight or flight) . This means, they tend to be nervous, jumpy, and overanxious . Their general instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict

Answer 28

. Individuals who are suggested to have higher levels of testosterone . They are unemotional and prone to aggression

Answer 29

. Neurotic-Extravert-Psychotic . Neurotics are unstable and therefore prone to overreact in situations of threat, Extraverts seek more arousal and so engage in more dangerous activities, and Psychotics are aggressive and lack empathy - all combine to create the criminal personality

Answer 30

. Eysenck said personality is linked to offending behaviour via socialisation processes . Eysenck saw offending behaviour as developmentally immature, in that it is selfish and associated with immediate gratification. Offenders are impatient and cannot wait for rewards . In the process of socialisation, children are taught to delay gratification and become more socially orientated . Eysenck said people with high Extroversion and Neuroticism scores had personalities which made conditioning difficult, meaning they would be less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses. Consequently, they would be more likely to behave antisocially when the situation presents itself

Answer 31

. Eysenck introduced the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) . This is a form of psychological test which locates participants along the E, N and P (extraversion, neuroticism, psychoticism) dimensions to determine their personality type. . The measurement of personality was key to Eysenck's theory, as it enabled him to conduct research relating personality variables to other behaviours, such as personality

Answer 32

Eysenck and Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 prisoners' scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire to the scores of 2422 controls. Across all age groups, the prisoners scored higher on measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism than the controls. This supports Eysenck's prediction that criminals rate higher than average across the three dimensions, strengthening the theories' reliability.

Answer 33

In Farrington's 1982 meta-analysis he found that while offenders tended to score highly on measures of psychoticism, they did not score as highly for extraversion and neuroticism. There is also inconsistent evidence of differences between EEG measures, which are used to measure cortical arousal, between extraverts and introverts, according to Kussner (2017). This challenges the psychological basis of Eysenck's theory, and some of its central assumptions.

Answer 34

The idea that offending can be explained by personality traits alone is too simplistic - Moffitt (1993) drew a distinction between offending behaviour that only occurs in adolescence and that which continues into adulthood (adolescence-limited vs life course persistent). She argued that personality traits alone could not predict how long offending behaviour would go on for, and how likely someone was to become a 'career offender'. She also argued that persistent offending was the result of a reciprocal process between both individual personality traits and environmental reactions to those traits. This presents a more complex explanation that Eyseck's theory, arguing on behalf of a more interactionist approach

Answer 35

Research suggests that the criminal personality may vary from culture to culture. For example, Bartol and Holanchock (1979) studied Hispanic and African-American offenders in a maximum security prison in New York. Offenders were divided into 6 groups based on their offending history and the nature of their offences. It was found that all 6 groups rated lower for extraversion than a non-offending control group - this challenges Eysenck's predicitons. The researchers suggested that this difference was because the sample was from a different cultural group than the one Eysenck investigated. This questions the generalisability of the criminal personality, and suggests it may be a culturally relative concept.

Answer 36

Bartol and Holanchock used offenders from one maximum security prison, assessing them using the EPQ, which asks questions such as whether individuals are lively. Responses to these questions may have been altered by the participants time in a maximum security prison, where their freedoms and free time is restricted. Perhaps if the questionnaire was administered before the offenders had been moved to the prison, responses would have revealed higher levels of Extraversion as they would have more opportunity to engage in risk-taking and stimulating behaviours. The findings arguably lack generalisability due to the unique position of the offenders, so cant be applied to all offenders from these cultural backgrounds. They may reveal less about the cultural relativism of the theory than suggested.

Answer 37

. Level of moral reasoning (Kohlberg) . Cognitive distortions

Answer 38

Kohlberg (1968) applied the concept of moral reasoning to offending behaviour, and proposed that peoples decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning. The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning. The theory was based on responses to a series of moral dilemmas, such as the Heinz dilemma.

Answer 39

. Pre-conventional stage . Conventional stage . Post-conventional stage

Answer 40

. Lasts until the age of 8 (approximately) . Children accept the authority and moral code of others. If an action leads to punishment, it must be bad. If it leads to a reward, it must be good. It can be divided into two stages: Stage 1. Avoiding punishment Stage 2. Self-interest

Answer 41

1. Avoiding punishment/Obedience and punishment orientation - Moral reasoning is based on direct consequences. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong

Answer 42

2. Self-interest/Individualism and Exchange - Actions are still seen in terms of reward, rather than moral value, but children may recognise that there is not one singular right view handed down by authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Answer 43

. Children believe that societal norms and external expectations determine what is acceptable and unacceptable behaviour . We internalise the moral standards of valued adult role models at the conventional level . It is believed that it is important to follow societies rules to maintain order and prevent problems eg. refusing to cheat on a test because cheating can harm the academic system Stage 3. Good Boy Attitude Stage 4. Law and Order Morality

Answer 44

3. Good Boy Attitude/Good Interpersonal relationships - The child/individual is good in order to be seen as a good person by others, to gain their approval

Answer 45

4. Law and Order morality - The individual is aware of the wider rules of society, so judgements concern obeying the rules to uphold the law and avoid guilt

Answer 46

. What is seen as right is based on an individuals understanding of universal ethical principles. What is considered morally acceptable in a situation is determined by what response fits most with these principles, rather than what society tells an individual to do Individuals consider what is fair and just, and try to make decisions that benefit everyone, rather than just themselves. Stage 5. Social Contract - Rules are seen as social agreements that can be changed when necessary Stage 6. Universal Principles - Moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and justice

Answer 47

5. Social Contract and Individual Rights - The individual becomes aware that while rules might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times that they will work against the interests of particular individuals

Answer 48

6. Universal Principles - People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone eg. human rights, justice, equality. The individual is prepared to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society

Answer 49

Only 10-15% of people are capable of the abstract thinking required for stage 5 and 6. Most people take their views from the world around them, and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.

Answer 50

Offenders are more likely to be classified as part of the pre-conventional level of Kohlberg's model. Non-offenders tend to have progressed to the conventional and post-conventional levels. The pre-conventional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards, and is associated with less mature, childlike reasoning. Adults and adolescents as this level may commit crimes if they believe they can get away with it, or gain rewards in the form of money, increased respect. This is supported by studies which suggest that offenders are more egocentric, and display poorer social-perspective taking skills than non-offenders (Chandler 1973). Individuals who reason at higher levels tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours, such as honesty, generosity and non-violence.

Answer 51

Errors or biases in peoples information processing system, characterised by faulty thinking. All people show evidence of faulty thinking when explaining their own behaviour, on occasion, but research has linked this to the way in which offenders interpret other peoples behaviour and justify their own actions. Cognitive distortions can take the form of: . Hostile attribution bias . Minimalisation

Answer 52

. A tendency to misinterpret the behaviours of others, assuming them to be confrontational when they are not. . In the case of offending, they may misread non-aggressive cues (eg. being looked at) which can trigger disproportionate, often violent responses . Schonenberg and Jusyte (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. When compared with a non-aggressive matched control group, the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile. . Research suggests that the roots of this may be apparent in childhood - Dodge and Frame (1982) showed children a clip of 'ambiguous provocation' (where the intention was not clearly hostile or clearly accidental). Children who had been identified as 'aggressive' and 'rejected' prior to the study interpreted the situation as more hostile than those classed as 'non-aggressive' and 'accepted'

Answer 53

. An attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence . Bandura (1973) described it as the application of a 'euphemistic label' for behaviour . eg. burglars may describe themselves as just 'doing a job', 'supporting their family' . Studies suggest than individuals who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimalisation - Barbaree (1991) found that among 26 incarcerated rapists, 54% denied that they had committed an offence at all, and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim

Answer 54

+ There is research support for the link between moral reasoning and crime - Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning in 332 non-offenders and 126 offenders using the SRM-SF (socio moral reflection measure short form) which contains 11 moral dilemma related questions. The offender group were shown to have less sophisticated moral reasoning than the non-offender group. This is consistent with Kohlberg's theory, increasing its reliability.

Answer 55

- The level of moral reasoning may vary depending on the offence, so cannot be used as a full explanation - Thornton and Reid (1982) found that people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than offenders who committed impulsive crimes such as assault. While this supports Kohlberg's theory to an extent, it shows that it cannot be applied to all types of crime. As such, it is a limited explanation.

Answer 56

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) aims to challenge irrational thinking. In the case of offending behaviour, offenders are forced to confront what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions. Harkins et.al (2010) suggested that reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy is strongly associated with reduced risk of offending, as accepting ones crime is seen as an important step towards rehabilitation. This suggests that theories about the role of cognitive distortions in crime can be used to prevent reoffending, showing it to have practical value.

Answer 57

The level of cognitive distortion depends on the type of offence, so the theory cannot be applied equally to all types of crime - Howitt and Sheldon (2007) gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders, and found that non-contact sex offenders (eg. those who accessed sexual images on the internet) used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders (eg. who had physically abused children). Additionally, those with a previous history of offending were more likely to use distortions as a justification for their actions. This suggests that distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders. As a result, the concept of cognitive distortions has limited applicability, as it can only be used to describe particularly criminals and offences.

Answer 58

An explanation for offending which suggests that individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour through interaction with others. Offending is learned in the same way as any other behaviour - through association with others

Answer 59

Sutherland (1923)

Answer 60

1. Criminal behaviour is learned 2. Criminal behaviour is learned in interactions with others - through communication, which can take any form including verbal 3. The principal part of learning criminal behaviour happens within intimate personal groups 4. When criminal behaviour is learned, it includes the learning of techniques and the learning of of motives and attitudes 5. The direction of motives and drives is learned from seeing legal codes be defined as favourable and unfavourable 6. A person becomes an offender because of an excess of definitions favourable to the violation of the law - when there are more definitions favourable to breaking the law than unfavourable. People do not only become criminals because of contact with criminal patterns, but also isolation from anticriminal patterns. This is the principle of differential association 7. Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity 8. The process of learning criminal behaviour involves all the mechanisms involved in any other kind of learning - not just imitation 10. Criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, but is not explained by those general needs and values since non-criminal behaviour is an expression of those same needs and values eg. a criminal steals for money, but a labourer will work for money

Answer 61

Sutherland wanted to develop a set of scientific principles which could explain all types of offending. He said that 'the conditions which are said to cause crime should be present when crime is present, and they should be absent when crime is absent' (Sutherland 2024). His theory aimed to discriminate between individuals who become offenders and those who do not, regardless of social class and ethnic background

Answer 62

. Offending behaviour may be acquired in the same way as any other behaviour through processes of learning . This learning occurs through interactions with significant others who the child values most and spends the most time with, such as their family or peer group . Differential association suggests that we should be able to mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit offences, provided we know the FREQUENCY, INTENSITY, and DURATION OF EXPOSURE to deviant and non-deviant norms and values Offending arises from two factors : learned attitudes towards offending, and the learning of specific offending acts/techniques

Answer 63

When a person is socialised into a group, they will be exposed to values and attitudes towards the law. Some of these values will be pro-crime, some of these will be anti-crime. Sutherland said that if the number of pro-criminal attitudes outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes. the individual will go on to offend. The learning process is the same whether the individual is learning to offend or conform to the law

Answer 64

In addition to being exposed to pro-criminal attitudes, the would-be offender also learns techniques for committing offences eg. how to break into a house, steal a car

Answer 65

Sutherlands theory also attempts to suggest why so many convicts released from prison go on to reoffend. It is reasonable to assume that whilst in prison inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from other, more experienced offenders. They may then put these into practice upon their release. This learning may occur through observational learning and imitation, or direct tuition from offending peers.

Answer 66

. Followed 411 males . At the beginning of the study they lived in working-class, deprived, inner-city areas of South London . The study began in 1961, when the participants were 8, and continued until they were 50 . Researchers looked at official records of conviction and self-reports of offending behaviour . By the end of the study, 41% of the participants had been convicted at least once . The most significant childhood risk factors were family criminality, risk taking behaviour, poor school performance, poverty, and poor parenting . The average conviction career lasted from age 19 to 28 and included 5 convictions

Answer 67

Sutherlands theory shifted emphasis way from biological and moralistic explanations for offending, suggesting that criminal behaviour is not a product of genetics or individual weakness, but of learning. He placed emphasis on the role of deviant environments and values in causing criminality, rather than deviant people. This was not only valuable in developing research into and theories about offending behaviour, but it is also a more desirable explanation in terms of rehabilitation. It offers a more realistic solution to the problem of offending than might be offered by a biological explanation (eg. eugenics) or a moralistic one (individual punishment), as it suggests criminality can be reduced by improving attitudes and environments. As such, it has practical benefits.

Answer 68

Differential association theory does run the risk of stereotyping those from impoverished backgrounds with criminal influences, as it could be seen to suggest that they may be 'unavoidably offenders' due to exposure to pro-criminal attitudes, which has negative social consequences and ethical implications, potentially encouraging mistreatment and bias of/against people from these backgrounds.

Answer 69

It can account for offending within all areas of society - Sutherland recognised that some types of offence, such as burglary, may be more common in inner-city, working-class communities, but he also placed emphasis on crime within the upper classes. He coined the term 'white-collar crime', and took interest in deviant norms and values in the middle classes. This shows that it is not just the lower classes who offend. As such, Sutherlands theory is valuable as it can be widely applied to several areas of society - it has high generalisability.

Answer 70

Sutherland aimed to provide a scientific framework in which offending could be predicted, where the predictions would be testable. However many of the theories concepts cant be operationalised eg. how many pro-crime attitudes a person has. Similarly, the theory is built on the assumption that offending occurs when pro-crime attitudes outnumber anti-crime ones, but if these attitudes cannot be measured, we can't know at what point offending is triggered, so this concept cannot be supported or disproven. This limits the theory, as it does not have scientific credibility.

Answer 71

An explanation proposed by Blackburn (1993) which argues that offending behaviour is the inevitable product of an inadequate or deficient superego (formed at the end of the phallic stage, based on the morality principle). If the superego is inadequate, offending behaviour occurs as the ID is given 'free rein'

Answer 72

. The weak superego . The deviant superego . The over-harsh superego

Answer 73

Developed when the same-gender parent is absent during the phallic stage. When this occurs, the child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego because there is no opportunity for identification. As a result, immoral or offending behaviour is more likely

Answer 74

Developed when a child has criminal or immoral role models and internalises immoral or deviant values. This can lead to criminality as they are unlikely to associate guilt with wrongdoing, so their superego does not punish immoral behaviour

Answer 75

A healthy superego is developed based on identification with a parent who is both firm and forgiving. An over-harsh superego develops due to an excessively punitive and harsh parenting style, creating a child who is crippled by guilt and anxiety. This can unconsciously drive the child to perform criminal acts in order to satisfy the superegos demands for punishment.

Answer 76

An inadequate superego allows for primitive, emotional demands to become uppermost in guiding moral behavior. The explanation emphasises the role of guilt (or lack of guilt) and anxiety in the development of offending behaviour - it deals with the emotional life of the offender

Answer 77

Bowlby (1944) argued that a failure to form a warm, continuous relationship with a mother-figure impacted a child's ability to form meaningful relationships in later life, as well as causing damaging and irreversible social, cognitive and emotional abnormalities. One example of this damage is the development of Affectionless psychopathy. This is characterised by a lack of guilt and empathy for others. Individuals with affectionless psychopathy are more likely to engage in criminality as because they do not experience guilt, and cannot form close relationships.

Answer 78

Bowlby interviewed 44 teenagers accused of stealing for signs of affectionless psychopathy. The thieves' families were also interviewed to find out whether they had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers. The sample was compared to a control group of 44 non-criminal but emotionally disturbed young people. 14/44 showed signs of affectionless psychopathy. Of the 14, 12 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in infancy. In the control group, only 2 had experienced similar separation, and only 5 of the remaining thieves. Bowlby concluded that maternal deprivation caused affectionless and delinquent behaviour among the juvenile thieves.

Answer 79

Megargee reported a series of cases where violent acts were carried out by individuals seen as passive and harmless. Megargee proposed that offenders like this were part of a distinct subgroup who shared the characteristic of having an inability to express their anger in normal ways. Because of this, they eventually 'exploded' and released all their anger and aggression in a burst, often in response to a trivial situation. This can be linked to the psychodynamic concept of defense mechanisms, particularly repression and displacement.

Answer 80

Research supports the link between offending and the superego. Goreta (1991) conducted an analysis of ten offenders referred for psychiatric treatment. In all those assessed, disturbances in superego formation were diagnosed. Each offender experienced unconscious feelings of guilt and the need for self-punishment, which Goreta attributed to an over-harsh superego, with the need for punishment manifesting as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoing. This supports the concept of psychic conflicts and deficient superegos as a basis for offending

Answer 81

In general, the central principles of the inadequate superego theory are not supported. If the theory were correct, we would expect harsh, punitive parents to raise children who constantly experience feelings of guilt and anxiety - however evidence suggests that the opposite is true. Parents who rely on strict discipline tend to raise children who are rebellious and rarely experience feelings of guilt or self-criticism (Kochanska et.al 2001)

Answer 82

Freudian theory is gender based, assuming that girls develop a weaker superego than boys because their identification with the same-gender parent is not as strong, due to them not experiencing castration anxiety in the phallic stage, and therefore being under less pressure to identify with their mothers. Therefore Freud suggested that girls' sense of morality was less fully realised. The implication of this should be that women are more prone to offending than men - however rates of imprisonment suggest that the opposite is true, with about 20x more men in UK prisons than women. In a study where children were required to resist temptation, Hoffman (1975) found hardly any evidence of gender differences, and that when they did occur it was girls who were more likely to be more moral. Therefore not only is alpha bias at the heart of Freud's theory, but research has suggested that this aspect of Freudian theory is inappropriate as an explanation for offending.

Answer 83

Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation is only based on an association between deprivation and offending. Lewis (1954) analysed data from interviews with 500 young people and found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending and the ability to form close later relationships. Even if there is a link between children who have experienced frequent or prolonged separation and later offending, this is not necessarily a causal relationship. There are countless other reasons for this apparent link e.g. maternal deprivation may be due to growing up in poverty, which also explains later offending. This suggests that maternal deprivation may not be the sole reason for later offending behaviour

Answer 84

. Custodial sentencing . Behaviour modification + token economies . Anger management . Restorative justice

Answer 85

A form of punishment which involves a convicted offender being incarcerated in a prison or spending time in another closed institution, such as a young offenders institution or psychiatric hospital

Answer 86

. Deterrence . Incapacitation . Retribution . Rehabilitation

Answer 87

The idea that the unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off both the offending individual (individual deterrence) from repeating their crime and wider society (general deterrence) from committing crime, by demonstrating that crime will not be tolerated. General deterrence is based on the behaviourist principle of vicarious reinforcement and punishment

Answer 88

The idea that the offender is taken out of society to prevent them reoffending for the protection of the public. The need for incapacitation tends to be dependent on the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender

Answer 89

The idea that incarceration allows society to enact revenge for the offence by making the offender suffer. The level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the offence. It is linked to the biblical notion of 'an eye for an eye' - that the offender should pay in some way for their actions. Many people see prison as the best option for retribution as alternatives are seen as too soft

Answer 90

The idea that the objective of prisons is not purely to punish, but to reform. Offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place as functional members of society. Prisons should provide opportunities to develop skills and training, or to access treatment programmes, as well as giving them the opportunity to reflect on their behaviour.

Answer 91

. Psychological effects . Recidivism

Answer 92

. Stress and depression - suicide rates are considerably higher in prison than in the general population, as well as incidents of self-harm. The stress of the prison experience also increases the risk of developing psychological disorders following release . Institutionalisation - inmates adapt to the norms and routines of prison life, which can result in them becoming so accustomed to these norms and routines that they are no longer able to function on the outside . Prisonisation - refers to the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an 'inmate code'. Behaviour that may be considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded inside the walls of the institution

Answer 93

Recidivism refers to reoffending and the tendency of offenders to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behaviour. In relation to the effects of custodial sentencing, recidivism rates can tell us to what extent prison acts as an effective deterrent. The UK tends to report proven figures within one year of release - Yukhnenko et.al 2019 found that the UK had a recidivism figure of about 45% Reoffending rates vary with time after release, age of offender, crime comitted and country. The US, Australia and Denmark frequently record rates in excess of 60% In Norway rates can be as low as 20% (Yukhnenko et.al) - in Norway there is less emphasis on incarceration and more emphasis on rehabilitation and skills development

Answer 94

Bartol (1995) suggested that for many offenders imprisonment can be 'brutal, demeaning and generally devastating'. Records from the Ministry of Justice suggest that a record 119 people killed themselves in English and Welsh prisons in 2016, equating to about 1 suicide every 3 days. This is almost 9x higher than in the general population. A study by the Prison Reform Trust also found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis. This research supports the view that custodial sentencing and the prison system may be detrimental to psychological health, negatively impacting rehabilitation.

Answer 95

The figures from the Prison Reform Trust study do not include the number of inmates who were experiencing psychotic symptoms before incarceration. Many of those convicted may have pre-existing psychological and emotional difficulties at time of conviction. Also, the importation model argues that prisoners import a subculture of criminality and particular values and beliefs - so it cannot be claimed for certain psychological problems arise from imprisonment. There may be confounding variables that influence the link between prison and its psychological impact

Answer 96

One objective of custodial sentencing is rehabilitation and the hope that offenders will become better individuals and members of society as a result of their time in prison. Many offenders access education and training while in prison, increasing the possibility that they will find employment upon release. Shirley (2019) suggested that offenders who take part in college education programmes are are 43% less likely to reoffend upon release. This suggests that prison can be a worthwhile experience, provided that offenders are able to access educational programmes

Answer 97

Custodial sentencing may lead to criminals 'learning crime'. Alongside the legitimate skills prisoners may learn while in prison, they may also undergo an education in criminal values and behaviours. Incarceration with long-term offenders may give younger and more inexperienced offenders the opportunity to learn new or more effective ways of offending. They may also acquire criminal contacts while in prison which are used in the outside world. This form of 'education' may undermine efforts to rehabilitate prisoners, and as a result make offending more likely.

Answer 98

Programmes designed to reduce the likelihood of reoffending by reinforcing obedient behaviour offenders, and punishing disobedience, in the hopes that the latter will become extinct. It is based on behaviourist principles of operant conditioning - the desired obedient behaviour is positively or negatively reinforced, using systems such as token economies, and disobedience is punished.

Answer 99

Behaviour modification programmes, based on operant conditioning, in which prisoners are given a token each time they perform a desirable behaviour - such as avoiding confrontation, following the instructions of guards, keeping your cell tidy. These tokens can then be exchanged for rewards, such as a phone call to a loved one, extra yard time, more food etc. In this sense, the tokens themselves are secondary reinforces - effective due to their association with a reward, which are primary reinforcers - directly rewarding. This serves the wider function of positive reinforcement. Tokens and their associated privileges can also be removed or withheld in response to non-compliance and bad behaviour - punishment. The desired behaviours and available rewards should be made clear to the prisoners before the token economy system is implemented

Answer 100

. Target behaviours should be operationalised, by breaking them down into their component parts - for example the target of 'improved interaction with other inmates' would be broken down into speaking politely, not touching another prisoner as you pass them. These units of behaviour should be objective and measurable, as well as agreed with prison staff and inmates in advance . Staff and prisoners should be aware of the Scoring system - target behaviours exist in a hierarchy, with some more demanding than others and therefore deserving of greater reward. Staff and prisoners should be aware of how much each particular behaviour is worth and where they place on the hierarchy. Some behaviours may be rewarded with a token directly, while others are rewarded with points which are converted to or build up to a token. It is recommended that reinforcements outnumber punishments in a 4:1 ratio (Gendreau et.al 2011) . Staff training - staff should be trained fully in order to implement a token economy system successfully. Training may occur for several hours and over a number of weeks. The aim of training is to standardise procedures so that staff reward all behaviours in the same way. Staff should also be trained to record when they have awarded tokens, so that the progress of individual prisoners can be assessed.

Answer 101

Hobbs and Holt studied the effects of a token economy system in 3 juvenile delinquent centres, along with a control group centre with no treatment. Tokens were awarded for co-operative behaviour and obedience, and could be used immediately or saved and exchanged for a larger reward at a later date. There was a significant increase in the performance of desired behaviours in the institutions using a token economy. Before the system was introduced, the percentage of desired behaviours being performed was 66%, 47% and 73%. After, this rose to 91%, 81% and 94%

Answer 102

Cohen and Filipczak demonstrated that a token economy group showed more desirable behaviour than a control group in an adult prison. They were less likely to have reoffended two years after the research. However after three years, recidivism rates returned to reflecting national statistics. This suggests that although token economies may be effective in the short term, their long term effectiveness is less certain.

Answer 103

Hobbs and Holt (1976) introduced a token economy system in 3 groups of juvenile offenders and found a significant increase in positive behaviours, compared to a control group. Field et.al (2004) found that a token economy system used with young people with behavioural problems was generally effective, although there were a number who did not respond. Later, when these youths were placed on a programme where rewards were more immediate and frequent, results were more positive. This suggests that token economy systems do work.

Answer 104

The success of token economy systems is dependent on a consistent approach from staff. Bassett and Blanchard (1977) found any benefits were lost if staff applied techniques inconsistently, which researchers suggested was due to factors such as poor training or high staff turnover. As such, behaviour modification systems only work if full and consistent staff participation is ensured, somewhat limiting their applicability

Answer 105

Token economies are relatively easy to set up in custody. There is no necessity for specialist professionals to be involved, as in anger management therapies, as token economies can be implemented by virtually anyone provided they have the relevant training. They are also cost-effective and easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement have been established. This suggests that behaviour modification programmes have wide applicability and value

Answer 106

Behaviour modification may not affect long-term behaviour. Blackburn (1993) argued that behaviour modification has 'little rehabilitative value', with any positive changes made while in prison lost upon release. Conversely, more cognitive-based treatments such as anger management may be more likely to lead to permanent behavioural change. Such treatments require the offender to understand the cause of their offending and take responsibility for their own rehabilitation, whereas a prisoner can outwardly comply with a token economy system with no real internal change to their character. This can explain regressions, such as those seen in Cohen and Filipczak's (1971) study.

Answer 107

Moya and Achtenberg (1974) described token economy systems as manipulative and dehumanising. Participation tends to be obligatory rather than optional, and the system is reliant upon the withholding of 'privileges' such as communication with loved ones or exercise, which is seen by human rights campaigners as deeply unethical.

Answer 108

Programmes used in prisons based on Novaco's (1975) theory that it is cognitive factors which trigger the emotional arousal that generally precedes aggressive acts. Novaco said anger is often quick to surface in situations perceived to be anxiety-inducing or threatening. Anger management therapies are a form of Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, in which individuals are taught to recognise the cognitive factors which trigger their anger and loss of control. They are then encouraged to develop techniques that bring about conflict resolution without violence

Answer 109

1. Cognitive preparation 2. Skills acquisition 3. Application practice

Answer 110

The first stage of anger management therapy which requires an offender to reflect on past experience and consider the typical pattern of their anger. Through this, the offender learns to identify situations which act as triggers to anger. If the therapist interprets the event as irrational, they must make this clear to the offender. In redefining the situation as non-threatening, the therapist is attempting to break what may well by an automatic response for the offender

Answer 111

The second stage of anger management in which offenders are introduced to skills and techniques to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally and effectively. Techniques can be: - Cognitive - positive self-talk to encourage calmness - Behavioural - assertiveness training in how to communicate more effectively. If practiced regularly enough, it can become an automatic response - Physiological - dealing with the physical reaction to anger by using relaxation training or meditation. The aim is to control ones emotions, rather than be controlled by them

Answer 112

The third stage of anger management in which offenders are given the opportunity to practice their skills within a carefully controlled environment. Such role play is likely to involve the offender and therapist re-enacting scenarios that may have escalated feelings of anger and violence in the past. This requires commitment from the offender, as they must see the scenario as real, as well as bravery from the therapist. If the offender successfully deals with the scenario and doesn't rise to anger, this will be positively reinforced by the therapist.

Answer 113

Keen et.al (2000) studied the progress of young offenders aged 17-21 who took part in an anger management programme - the National Anger Management Package. It is comprised of 8 two hour sessions, the first 7 over a three week period and the last a month later. Though there were initial issues with offenders not taking the course seriously, and individuals forgetting routines and requirements, the final outcomes were generally positive. Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self control.

Answer 114

Ireland compared the progress of a group of offenders who took part in an anger management programme, and a non-treatment control group. After the treatment, consisting of 12 sessions, outcomes were assessed using an interview, a behaviour checklist completed by prison officers, and a self-report questionnaire. Researchers found that 92% of the experimental group showed an improvement in at least one measure, and 48% in the checklist and questionnaire. There were no such improvements in the control group

Answer 115

The benefits of anger management may outlast those of behaviour modification. Anger management aims to tackle the causes of offending - the cognitive processes underlying it. Conversely, behaviour modification deals only with surface behaviour, rather than the processes that drive it. Anger management treatments may give offenders new insight into the causes of their criminality and allow them to self-discover ways of managing themselves outside of the prison setting. The suggests that anger management is more likely to lead to permanent behavioural change.

Answer 116

Follow up studies of anger management tend not to support its longevity. Blackburn (1993) pointed out that while anger management may have a noticeable effect on the conduct of offenders in the short term, there is little evidence that it reduces recidivism in the long term. This may be because the application phase of treatment is reliant upon role play, which may not accurately represent the possible triggers in a real world situation.

Answer 117

The success of anger management may depend on individual factors. Howells et.al (2005) conducted an investigation involving Australian offenders, and found that participation in anger management had little overall effect when compared to a control group receiving no treatment. However this was not true for all offenders in the programme, with treatment proving more effective for offenders who showed intense levels of anger before the programme. Also, offenders who were open to change and were highly motivated from the outset experienced similar gains. This suggests that anger management may only benefit offenders who fit a particular profile.

Answer 118

Anger management programmes are expensive to run as they require the services of highly trained specialists who are used to dealing with violent offenders. Due to this, many prisons lack the funding to run such programmes. In addition, the success of anger management is often based on the commitment of those who participate. Prisoners who are uncooperative and apathetic prove even more costly because of this, as change takes time so more expense is required to run effective treatments. As such, anger management programmes have limited applicability as they cannot be used in all prisons.

Answer 119

A method of dealing with offending behaviour which is focused on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with victims. This allows the offender to see the impact of their crime, and empowers victims by giving them a 'voice'. Restorative justice changes focus from the idea that a crime has been committed against the state. It emphasises the needs of the victim (compensation, coming to terms with the crime) rather than the needs of the state (punishment, enforcing the law). Restorative justice should seek to be a healing process. It is less about retribution and more about reparation. It is focused on: . The survivor and their recovery . The offender and their rehabilitation

Answer 120

. A trained mediator supervises the meeting . Non-courtroom setting . Face-to-face or conducted remotely . Survivor is given the opportunity to confront the offender and explain how the offence affected them. This enables the offender to comprehend the consequences of their actions . Active involvement of both parties . Focus on positive outcomes for both offenders and survivors . Other relevant community members may have a role in the process, such as neighbours, friends and family members. They may also explain the effects of the crime.

Answer 121

. Restorative justice may occur pre-trial, and involvement may be considered during sentencing to make it more lenient. Alternately, it can function alongside a prison sentence, as an alternative to prison, or as an incentive to reduce the length of a sentence . Traditionally, restitution is a monetary payment by an offender to a survivor. This financial restitution may reflect the psychological damage caused or any actual physical damage. In the case of physical damage, the offender may be required to repair damaged property themselves . Restitution can also be implemented in a more emotional sense. The offender can support the healing process by helping to rebuild the survivors confidence or self-esteem

Answer 122

The restorative justice council is an independent body whose role is to establish clear standards for restorative practice and support survivors and specialists. It advocates the use of restorative justice beyond dealing with crime - it can be used in preventing and managing conflict in schools, childrens services, the workplace and hospitals, for example

Answer 123

Evidence suggests that restorative justice has positive outcomes for survivors. Shapland et.al (2008) reported the results of a 7 year research project. It was found that 85% of survivors reported satisfaction with the process of meeting their offender face-to-face, and 78% would recommend the process to someone else. About 60% said the process had made them feel better about the incident, allowing them to feel closure and move on. Only 2% said it had made them feel worse. This suggests restorative justice has positive implications for survivors.

Answer 124

Not all research is overwhelmingly positive. Wood and Suzuki (2016) argue that restorative processes are not as survivor-focused as often reported. Researchers say that restorative justice processes can become distorted, with survivors of a crime potentially being used to rehabilitate offenders, rather then being helped themselves. In addition to this, many studies into the effect of restorative justice on survivor satisfaction involve small samples with no long-term follow up. Therefore it is unclear whether RJ always benefits survivors - their needs may become secondary to those of offenders

Answer 125

Restorative justice does seem to lead to a decrease in recidivism rates. Strang et.al (2013) conducted a meta-analysis of ten studies, comparing offenders who experienced face-to-face restorative schemes with those who just experienced custodial sentencing. The restorative justice group was significantly less likely to reoffend. Similarly, in a review of 24 studies by Bain (2012) it was found that recidivism rates were lower in adult offenders following RJ, especially when using one-to-one contact. This suggests that restorative justice has a positive impact on reoffending.

Answer 126

The success of restorative justice schemes may hinge on an offenders intentions being 'honourable' - genuinely taking part because they regret the hurt caused and want to make amends. However Gijseghem (2003) suggests that offenders may use restorative justice in order to avoid punishment, play down their faults or even to take pride in their relationship with the survivor. This would explain why some offenders go on to reoffend in spite of undergoing restorative justice.

Answer 127

Restorative justice cannot always be used for every type of crime. While permitted in cases of domestic abuse, the National Police Chief's Council does not support its use in this context, while Liebman (2016) argues that the power imbalance between abuser and abused places pressure on survivors to comply with their abusers' suggestions during mediation. Restorative Justice is also not available to offenders who have committed 'serious' offences, or those with a substantial criminal record. Therefore restorative justice cannot be used all cases of crime, limiting its applicability

Answer 128

It has been suggested that RJ can be beneficial in cases of domestic abuse. Lunnemann and Wolthius (2015) argued that pre-trial mediation in domestic violence cases produces postive results for survivors. Sen et.al (2018) suggested that restorative approaches are particularly useful in cases of intimate partner violence where a couple has chosen to remain together.

Forensic Psychology Flashcards

(152 cards)