Approaches - Paper 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Who opened the first psychology lab?
A
Wilhelm Wundt in 1879
2
Q
What were Wundt’s aims?
A
To analyse the nature of human consciousness
3
Q
What is introspection?
A
The systematic attempt to study the mind by breaking it up into the conscious awareness into the basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
4
Q
What was Wundt’s procedure?
A
He aimed to develop theories about mental processes through him and his coworkers recording their experiences of various stimuli such as objects and sounds eg. they were given a ticking metronome. Their observations were divided into 3 categories : thoughts, images and sensations
5
Q
What is structuralism?
A
Isolating the structure of consciousness by breaking it down into its simplest components
6
Q
What is a strength of Wundt’s work - scientific?
A
. SCIENTIFIC - His methods were generally systematic and well-controlled. All introspections were recorded in a controlled environment (the lab), reducing the likelihood of extraneous variables interfering with results. Also, procedures and instructions were standardised, so all participants received the same instructions and were tested in the same way. As such, Wundt can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology.
7
Q
What is a limitation of Wundt’s work - subjective?
A
. SUBJECTIVE DATA - Other aspects of Wundt’s work would be considered unscientific today. He relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes - this data is therefore subjective (influenced by a personal perspective). Participants may have also hidden some of their thoughts. It is difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from these results. This suggests some of Wundt’s earlier studies were flawed and do not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry
8
Q
What is a counterargument to the subjectivity argument - Wundt?
A
Wundt’s research can be seen to align with the idiographic approach, which is focused on the individual case in order to understand behaviour. In this approach, generalisations can be made through the identification of emergent themes which are seen repeatedly in several individuals. So while Wundt’s research might not be scientific in all aspects, it is unfair to claim that it is completely incapable of making predictions about future behaviour.
9
Q
Psychology in the 1900’s :
A
. Behaviourist approach popular, focused on observable and measurable phenomena. Behaviourists such as Watson and Skinner focus on observable behaviours and used carefully controlled experiments. The behaviourist approach dominated for the next 50 years.
. Psychodynamic approach - Freud emphasises the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour, and develops his client centered therapy, psychoanalysis
10
Q
Psychology in the 1910’s:
A
. Skinner establishes the behaviourist approach, dominates psychology along with psychodynamic approach for early 20th century
11
Q
Psychology in the 1950’s:
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. Rogers and Maslow develop the humanistic approach, emphasising the importance of self-determination and free will and rejecting the behaviourist and psychodynamic view that human behaviour is determined by outside forces.
. Cognitive approach reintroduces the study of mental processes but in a more scientific way, inspired by the introduction of the digital computer. They liken the mind to a computer and test predictions using experiments. The cognitive approach focused a legitimate and scientific study of the mind.
12
Q
Psychology in the 1960’s:
A
. Bandura proposes social learning theory, linking the cognitive approach and behaviourism by drawing attention to the role of cognitive factors in learning
13
Q
Psychology in the 1980’s:
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. Biological approach becomes the dominant scientific perspective in psychology, taking advantage of developments in psychology to increase understanding of the brain and biological processes
14
Q
Psychology in the 2000’s:
A
. Cognitive neuroscience emerges, brings together cognitive and biological approach, investigates how biological structures influence mental states
15
Q
What is a strength of psychological research - scientific?
A
Psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences – to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour. The learning approaches, cognitive approach and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods e.g. lab studies to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased way. This suggests that throughout and post the 20th century psychology has established itself as a scientific discipline
16
Q
What is a limitation of psychological research - subective?
A
Not all approaches in psychology use objective methods. The humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach, focusing instead on individual and subjective experiences. The psychodynamic approach frequently uses case studies, which do not use representative samples. Also, psychology is almost entirely focused on humans and uses human subjects in research, which creates the possibility of findings suffering from demand characteristics. Therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thought and experience may not always be desirable or possible
17
Q
Outline the behaviourist approach
A
An approach which aims to explain behaviour in terms of what is observable and measurable. Behaviourists aim to maintain control and objectivity, using lab studies and rejecting concepts such as introspection, which are seen as too vague and difficult to measure.
The central concept of the behaviourist approach is the idea that behaviour is learned. It argues that we are born as a ‘blank slate’ (tabula rasa) which is developed through experience. Behaviourists suggest that the basic processes which govern learning are the same in all species, allowing animals to replace humans in behaviourist research.
18
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Learning by association. Classical conditioning occurs when two stimuli – an unconditioned and a neutral stimulus – are repeatedly paired together. The neutral stimulus eventually becomes a conditioned stimulus, producing the same response alone as the unconditioned stimulus on its own
19
Q
What was Pavlov’s (1927) study?
A
Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning in action using dogs. Food (an unconditioned stimulus) produced the unconditioned response of salivation in the dogs. Pavlov paired the food (UCS) with a ringing bell (a neutral stimulus). The bell initially produced no response on its own. The repeated association between the bell (NS) and the food (UCS) eventually led to the bell becoming a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produced the conditioned response of salivation, even when the bell was used in isolation.
20
Q
What is extinction?
A
If a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response may eventually disappear, so that the stimulus reverts to being a neutral stimulus which produces no response – this is known as extinction
21
Q
What is Spontaneous recovery in terms of classical conditioning?
A
Even if a conditioned stimulus appears to be ‘extinct’, it may occasionally still trigger the unconditioned response. E.g. the dog in Pavlov’s study may still salivate at the sound of a bell on occasion – this is known as spontaneous recovery
22
Q
What is generalisation?
A
The unconditioned response may be elicited in the presence of objects similar to the conditioned stimulus. E.g. Pavlov’s bell could be changed in tone and volume and still produce the same response. Similarly, in the Little Albert study, his fear was generalised to objects similar to a white rat (the conditioned stimulus) such as white dogs or rabbits.
23
Q
What is discrimination?
A
There will come a point where objects similar to the conditioned stimulus become too different and cannot produce the conditioned response. E.g. Little Albert was not afraid of everything white and furry, such as Watson’s beard
24
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
Learning through consequence – Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate based on their environment. Behaviour is shaped by consequences, which may take the form of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
25
What is positive reinforcement?
Where a behaviour is reinforced or encouraged by receiving a reward when the behaviour is performed e.g. getting to go to bed later because you cleaned up all your toys. This increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
26
What is negative reinforcement?
Where a behaviour is reinforced or encouraged by avoiding a negative consequence when the behaviour is performed e.g. not being shouted at by a parent because you cleaned up your toys. This increases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated.
27
What is punishment?
Where a behaviour is discouraged by receiving a negative consequence for performing the behaviour e.g. being given a detention for not doing your homework. This decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
28
What was Skinner's research?
Skinner placed individual rats and pigeons in specially designed ‘skinner boxes’. These cages were fitted with a lever in the case of rats, or a button in the case of pigeons. When the rat pushed the lever, or the pigeon pecked the button, a food pellet would enter the cage. Over several instances of this happening, the pigeons and rats continued to perform this behaviour. This demonstrates positive reinforcement, where the animal is rewarded for pushing the lever, leading to pushing the lever becoming a conditioned behaviour
Skinner also demonstrated how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to push the lever or peck the button to avoid the negative consequence of getting a minor electric shock. This demonstrates negative reinforcement.
29
How can conditioning be linked to gambling?
Skinner found that the conditioned behaviour of pushing the lever in order to receive food pellets died out when the animal was satiated. It was revealed that a variable ratio situation prolonged the behaviour and limited the risk of extinction – that is to say, rewarding the animal with a food pellet only after a variable number of responses are performed e.g. a food pellet is given after every 10th , 15th push.
The idea that unpredictability of rewards prolongs behaviour has been applied to gambling. Gambling often does not ‘pay out’ in a predictable fashion – someone betting on a horse race may win on one race, but then not win for several more. However they continue to gamble in the hopes of a reward/positive consequence
Gambling can also be linked to classical conditioning and learning by association. Winning may be associated with an adrenaline rush that occurs every time this happens. The bleeps and buzzes that happen when you ‘win’ at gambling e.g. on a fruits machine may create an intrinsically rewarding mini-universe which the gambler comes to associate with pleasure and excitement. The sounds of gambling may produce a pleasure response, even without winning
30
What is a strength of the behaviourist approach - well controlled?
Behaviourists focus on the measurement of observable behaviour in highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into stimulus-response units, extraneous variables can be removed, allowing cause and effect relationships to be established. This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.
31
What is a counterargument to the 'well controlled' argument?
This approach may mean that behaviourists have oversimplified the learning process. By reducing behaviour to simple components, behaviourists may have discounted the impact of human thought. Approaches such as Social Learning Theory and the Cognitive approach, on the other hand, draw attention to the mental processes involved in learning. This suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone – private mental processes are also essential
32
What is a limitation of the behaviourist approach - environmental determinism?
The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as being conditioned by past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the product of our reinforcement history. The idea that our past history dictates all our decisions and their outcomes ignores the influence of free will – which Skinner described as an illusion. This is an extreme position, and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour.
33
What is a strength of the behaviourist approach - real world application?
The principles of conditioning can be applied to real-world behaviours and problems. For example, operant conditioning forms the basis of token economy systems used in prisons and psychiatric wards. Classical conditioning has been applied to systematic desensitisation. This increases the value of the behaviourist approach, as it has widespread application.
34
What is a limitation of the behaviourist approach - ethical concerns?
The rats and pigeons in Skinners research were housed in harsh, cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural weight so that they were always hungry. Many have questioned the ethics of such treatments, and the study as a whole
35
Outline Social Learning Theory
An explanation for behaviour proposed by Bandura, which suggests that learning of behaviour occurs both directly – through classical and operant conditioning – and indirectly, through the observation and imitation of others.
36
What is Vicarious reinforcement?
A type of indirect learning where an individual observes someone else performing a behaviour and sees it being rewarded, and is therefore more likely to imitate it themselves.
37
What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others
38
What are the 4 mediational processes outlined by Bandura?
. Mediational processes are cognitive processes which intervene in the learning process to determine whether a new behaviour is acquired.
According to Bandura, the 4 mediational processes are:
. Attention - The extent to which we notice a behaviour
. Retention - Whether a behaviour is remembered
. Motor reproduction - The ability to replicate this behaviour
. Motivation - The will to replicate a behaviour - often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
. Attention and Retention relate to the learning of a behaviour, motor reproduction and motivation relate to the performance
. Learning and performance don't need to occur at the same time - a behaviour may be learned at one point, but not be performed until much later.
39
What is Identification?
Where someone identifies with and desires to be associated with a particular group or individual because they are seen to possess desirable characteristics, are attractive and have high status and/or because they possess similar characteristics to the observer. People – especially children – are more likely to imitate someone they identify with. Role models do not necessarily have to be physically present.
40
What is modelling?
Imitating the behaviour of a role model.
Modelling can also refer to the behaviour of the role model themself
41
What was Bandura et.al (1961)?
The study featured two conditions: children who observed an adult behaving non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll, and children who observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it.
Later, when the children were observed playing with a bobo doll, those in the aggressive condition were seen to behave much more aggressively towards the doll than those who had observed the non-aggressive adult.
This illustrates the role of observational learning and imitation
42
What was Bandura and Walter (1963)?
The study featured 3 conditions
1 – children observed an adult behave aggressively towards a bobo doll, and then observed the adult be praised for this behaviour
2 – children observed an adult behaving aggressively towards a bobo doll, and then observed the adult be punished for this
3 – control group – children observed the adult behaving aggressively towards a bobo doll with no consequence
When given their own Bobo doll, the children in the reinforcement condition showed the most aggression towards the doll, followed by the control condition, and then the punishment condition.
This illustrates the role of vicarious reinforcement in learning
43
What is a strength of Social Learning Theory - cognitive factors?
The behaviourist approach recognises the importance of cognitive factors. Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and animals observe and make judgements about the behaviour of others which they use to decide when an action is appropriate - something the behavourist approach doesn't consider. This suggests SLT is a more comprehensive explanation for human learning as it recognises the role of mediational processes
44
What is a counterpoint to the cognitive factors argument - social learning theory?
SLT has been criticised for making too little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning. Bandura suggested that while biological differences influenced our learning potential, learning itself is determined by our environment. However recent research suggests that observational learning could be the result of mirror neurons in the brain, which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people.
45
What is a limitation of Social Learning Theory - contrived lab studies?
Bandura's ideas were developed through the observation of young children in labs. Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature - can lead to demand characteristics. It has been suggested that because the main purpose of a bobo doll is to hit it children were acting as they thought they were expected to, rather than modelling behaviour. Therefore the research has reduced internal validity.
46
What is a strength of social learning theory - real-world application?
SLT principles have been applied to a range of real world behaviours, and can explain cultural differences in behaviour. Principles such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from other people and the media - this can explain how social norms are transmitted through particular societies. As such, the approach can account for real-world behaviour
47
What is a strength of Social Learning Theory - Reciprocal determinism -
Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism, arguing that we are not merely influenced by our environment, but also exert an influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform. This suggests that there is an element of free will in how we choose to behave, contrasting with the behaviourist approach which denies the possibility of free will.
48
Outline the cognitive approach:
An explanation of human behaviour which highlights the role of internal mental processes (e.g. thoughts, perception, attention), arguing that they can and should be studied scientifically. These internal mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed. Therefore, cognitive psychologists study them indirectly, by making inferences about the internal workings of individuals minds based on their outward behaviours.
49
What are Internal Mental Processes?
Private operations of the mind, such as perception and attention, which mediate between stimulus and response
50
What is a schema?
A mental framework or package of beliefs and expectations developed through experience. They influence how we interpret incoming information.
Babies are born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours, but as we get older schemas become more sophisticated and detailed. They are developed through experience e.g. Bugelski and Alampay (1962) - 'The Rat Man'
51
How do schemas affect cognitive processing?
Schemas enable us to process information quickly, which is useful as it acts as a 'mental shortcut', preventing us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
However they can distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors
52
What is meant by 'Internal mental processes'?
Private operations of the mind that mediate between stimulus and response
53
What is Inference?
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way that mental processes operate on the basis of observed behaviour
54
What are theoretical and computer models used for?
Theoretical models are abstract, while computer models are concrete things - it involves programming a computer to see if instructions associated with a cognitive process produce the same outcome as in humans. However both are used to help psychologists to understand internal mental processes.
55
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes. Recent advances in brain scanning techniques such as fMRI and PET scans have allowed scientists to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes. Scanning techniques have also been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders such as OCD.
However there is a long history in psychology of mapping specific cognitive functions to brain areas e.g. Broca and the frontal lobe in the 1860's
Cognitive neuroscience also includes the use of computer-generated models to 'read' the brain, leading to the development of mind-mapping techniques known as 'brain fingerprinting'.
56
What is a strength of the cognitive approach - real world application?
The cognitive approach has practical applications. It is arguably the most dominant approach in psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical and theoretical concepts, such as AI and robotics. Cognitive principles have also been applied to the treatment of depression and in the legal field regarding Eyewitness testimonies. This supports the value of the approach.
57
What is a strength of the cognitive approach - scientific?
The approach uses objective, scientific methods. Cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled, rigorous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable, objective data. Furthermore, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience has enabled biology and cognitive psychology to come together to enhance the scientific basis of study.
58
What is a counterpoint to the scientific argument - cognitive approach?
Cognitive psychology relies on the inference of mental processes, rather than direct observation of behaviour. As a result, it can occassionally suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature. Similarly, research studies of mental processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli, which lack ecological validity.
59
What is a limitation of the cognitive approach - machine reductionism?
The cognitive approach is based on machine reductionism. While there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer (input and output, storage systems) the computer analogy has been criticised. It has been argued that by reducing the human mind down to the complexity of a machine, the approach ignores the influence of emotion and motivation on our ability to process information e.g. anxiety on EWT. This machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive approach.
60
What is a strength of the cognitive approach - soft determinism?
The cognitive approach is founded on soft determinism, arguing that human behaviour may be determined by internal and external factors, but we can also exert our free will at times. This is preferable to the hard determinism stance of the biological approach, for example.
61
Outline the biological approach:
An approach which emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body - such as genetic inheritance and neural function - on behaviour. It argues that everything psychological is at first biological, so to understand human behaviour we must look at biological structures and processes within the body. It also argues that the mind has a physical reality in the brain - all thoughts, feelings and behaviours ultimately have a physical basis.
62
What is meant by biological structures?
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing.
63
What is neurochemistry?
Refers to the actions of chemicals in the brain that regulate biological and psychological functioning
64
What is meant by the idea that there is a neurochemical basis of behaviour?
Our thoughts and behaviors are seen as being heavily reliant on chemical transmissions in the brain, through neurotransmitters. An imbalance of neurochemicals in the brain is seen as being involved in mental disorders eg. low levels of serotonin in OCD, or the overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia
65
What are genes?
Units of hereditary information, consisting of DNA, which codes for the physical and psychological features of an organism. They make up chromosomes, and are transmitted from parents to offspring.
66
What is meant by the idea that there is a genetic basis for behaviour?
Genes code for physical features such as eye colour, and psychological features such as mental disorder and intelligence, and as such have the ability to influence behaviour
67
What is a genotype?
The particular set of genes a person inherits - their actual genetic makeup
68
What is a phenotype?
The physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics an individual has - the way in which genes are expressed. It can be influenced by the environment, which can explain why twins have the same genotype but different characteristics
69
What are twin studies used for?
To investigate whether psychological conditions have a genetic, inherited basis. This is done through analysing concordance rates (the extent to which twins express the same characteristics/behaviour's).
Monozygotic twins share 100% of their genes and are identical. Meanwhile Dizygotic twins share 50% of genes, and are non-identical.
If the characteristic is genetic, we would expect monozygotic twins to be concordant and have a 100% concordance rate.
70
What is evolution?
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
71
How does evolution link to the biological approach?
Evolutionary theory suggests that behaviours develop based on the idea of natural selection - behaviours seen as 'desirable' i.e.. behaviours that improved survival chances (adaptive behaviours) were passed on, as they enabled people to survive in order to reproduce. Over time, behaviours that don't aid survival are wiped from the gene pool, and the species as a whole evolves.
A behaviour believed to be a result of natural selection is mate selection - in our evolutionary past a man with recourses would be attractive to females as he would be able to look after her and later offspring. Equally a young, attractive female would be seen as fertile and as having good genes. Attachment is also believed to be an evolutionary process - Bowlby said attachment to a primary caregiver is adaptive.
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What is a strength of the biological approach - real world application?
Increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental health disorders e.g. the use of antidepressants which increase levels of serotonin at the synapses to treat clinical depression. Such drugs have been associated with a reduction of depressive symptoms. This means that ideas of the biological approach can be practically applied to improve the lives of people suffering with mental health disorders.
73
What is a counterpoint to the real world application argument - biological approach?
Antidepressant drugs are beneficial for many patients, but do not work for everyone. Cipriani et.al (2018) compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness. Although most of the drugs were more effective than placebos, the researchers that generally the effects of antidepressants were 'mainly modest'. This challenges the value of the biological approach - the limitations of antidepressants suggest that brain chemistry alone cannot account fully for depression.
74
What is a strength of the biological approach - scientific?
The biological approach uses scientific methods of investigation. In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach uses a range of precise and highly objective methods, such as brain scanning techniques. Thanks to advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure psychological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias. This means the biological approach is based on objective and reliable data.
75
What is a limitation of the biological approach - biological determinism?
The biological approach is determinist in that it sees human behaviour as being governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control. However an individuals phenotype is heavily influenced by the environment - that twin studies demonstrate physical, behavioural and psychological differences between Mz twins clearly shows that a purely genetic argument cannot be accepted. Also, a genetic argument is problematic in the context of criminals, as a biological approach could suggest that they cannot be held accountable for their actions - they are the product of their genes. The biological approach is arguably too simplistic, and ignores the mediating effects of the environment in a way that could have serious real world implications.
76
What is a limitation of the biological approach - Popper?
Popper argued that it is not possible to falsify the theory of Natural Selection - a key criterion of science - as it is based on deduction. In this case, this opens up questions about the biological approach, as it may be based on unscientific principles.
77
What is the Psychodynamic approach?
A perspective proposed by Freud which describes the different forces that operate on the mind and direct human behaviour and experience. It argues that most of these forces are 'unconscious', with the 'conscious mind' only the tip of the iceberg of the human mind.
The unconscious mind is a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts, and threatening or disturbing memories which have been repressed.
Freud said that behaviour can be explained as being the product of unresolved unconscious conflicts.
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What are the 4 components of the psychodynamic approach?
. The structure of the mind - Unconscious, Conscious and Preconscious
. The Tripartite structure of personality - Id, Ego and Superego
. The psychosexual stages of development
. Defence mechanisms
79
What is the conscious mind?
Referred to as the 'tip of the iceberg' in terms of the mind - it is the easiest area to gain access to. It contains everything we are currently aware of - if you were asked to state what you were currently thinking, you would retrieve that information from your conscious mind.
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What is the preconscious mind?
The second level of the iceberg. It contains things that are not currently going through our mind (not in conscious awareness), but that we can easily access if desired, usually when a cue is present.
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What is the unconscious mind?
The deepest level of the iceberg, and the hardest to access. It contains things such as threatening or disturbing memories that make us feel uncomfortable, so we repress and bury them. These can be accessed through dreams or 'slips of the tounge' (what Freud called parapraxes) eg. calling a teacher mum. It is the largest section of our mind, but is also the section we are completely unaware of.
82
What was Levinger and Clark's (1961) research?
Levinger and Clark conducted an experiment to investigate Freud's 'repression' hypothesis and the idea that uncomfortable memories are suppressed in the unconscious mind. Participants were given a set of neutral words and a set of negative, emotionally charged words. They then had to provide an associated word for each stimulus word. Later, participants had to recall the word they provided that went with the stimulus word. Researchers found that participants were less successful in recalling negative associations than neutral ones. This supports the view that uncomfortable memories are repressed - research support for Freud's theory.
HOWEVER there are problems with ecological validity, in the sense that emotionally charged stimulus words have a much lower emotional threat than real-life anxiety provoking stimuli.
Conversely, the effects observed may have been due to the high arousal provoked by the emotionally charged words. High levels of arousal or anxiety can inhibit recall (Yerkes-Dodson Law)
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What is the tripartite structure of personality?
The idea that the human psyche is split into 3 parts - the Id, the Ego, and the Superego. These elements must be in balance or undesirable behaviours can occur.
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What is the Id?
The primitive, selfish part of our personality which operates based on the 'pleasure principle', and demands instant gratification for its desires.
It is entirely unconscious, and is the first part of our personality to develop. Only the Id is present at birth, as it is inherited.
It is based on 2 primal drives : Eros, the life instinct, and Thanatos, the death instinct.
Someone with a dominant Id is selfish, uncaring, irrational and emotional, engaging in dangerous behaviour's frequently.
85
What is the Ego?
The part of the personality which acts as a mediator between the Id and Superego. It is based on the 'reality principle', attempting to satisfy the other principles within the constraints of the external world through employing a number of defense mechanisms.
It develops from the Id at around 18 months - 2 years
It is located in the unconscious, preconscious and conscious mind
Someone with a dominant Ego would be efficient and rational, but could be seen as quite boring
86
What is the Superego?
The moralistic part of our personality that represents the ideal self.
It is formed at the end of the phallic stage, around age 3-6 as children internalise their parents sense of right and wrong. It represents the moral standard of the child's same-gender parent.
It is based on the 'morality principle', punishing immoral behaviour with guilt and rewarding perfect/moral behaviour with pride
It is mostly located in the conscious and preconscious mind
It demands perfection, so can cause us to be critical of ourselves and others. Someone with a dominant superego has perfectionist tendencies, and can be overly critical.
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What are the 5 psychosexual stages of development?
The 5 developmental stages all children pass through. At each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development. Any unresolved psychosexual conflict leads to a fixation where the child becomes 'stuck'.
The stages are:
. Oral stage
. Anal stage
. Phallic stage
. Latency stage
. Genital stage
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What is the oral stage?
. Age 0-1 years
. Pleasure is gained from the mouth, with the mothers breast being what satisfies this/the object of desire
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What is the anal stage?
. Age 1-3 years
. Pleasure is gained from the anus while the child is learning to control their bowel movements. Pleasure is gained from withholding and expelling faeces
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What is the phallic stage?
. Age 3-6 years
. Pleasure is gained from the genital area
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What is the latency stage?
. Age 6-11 years
. Seen as a 'stage off', where earlier conflicts are repressed in the unconscious mind
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What is the genital stage?
. From puberty onwards
. Sexual desires become conscious, with interest shown toward the opposite sex and pleasure obtained through heterosexual relationships
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What happens if there are unresolved conflicts in the oral stage?
. If the child is under-gratified in this stage, an 'oral aggressive' personality will develop which can result in smoking, aggression and trust issues
. If the child is over-gratified, an 'oral receptive' personality develops where the child may be overly dependent and trusting
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What happens if there are unresolved conflicts in the anal stage?
. If the child is punished during potty training, an 'anal retentive' personality develops, and the child may become a perfectionist, obsessive etc..
. If potty training is too relaxed, an 'anal expulsive' personality develops where the child grows up to be a disorganised, thoughtless and messy individual
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What happens if there are unresolved conflicts in the phallic stage?
In this stage the child goes through the Oedipus or Electra complex. Failure to identify with the same sex parents can lead to gender role issues/homosexuality.
A phallic personality can develop, where the child is vain, narcissistic and reckless
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What happens if there are unresolved conflicts in the latency stage?
Fixations cant happen here
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What happens if there are unresolved conflicts in the genital stage?
Freud believed fixations were healthy in this stage, and if fixations have occurred in other stages we would see them displayed here eg. difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
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What are defense mechanisms?
Unconscious strategies used by the Ego to manage the conflict between Id and Superego. They can prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas.
They often involve some distortion of reality, so are considered to be psychologically unhealthy as a long term solution
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What is repression?
The act of forcing distressing information out of the conscious mind and burying it in the unconscious mind, as it is too traumatic
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What is denial?
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality, not facing up to problems and pretending they aren't happening
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What is displacement?
Transferring emotions from the true source of distress onto a substitute target.
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What is the 'Little Hans' case study?
A case study conducted by Freud where he looked at a 5 year old boy, Hans.
From the age of 3, Hans had expressed an interest in 'widdlers' - his penis and others'. His mother had threatened to cut off his penis unless he stopped playing with it.
Hans had developed a phobia of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Freud linked this to the horses large penis, and suggested the phobia was a form of displacement, in which his repressed fear of his father as a result of the Oedipus complex was transferred to the horse.
Horses were a symbolic representation of Hans' real unconscious fear - that his father would castrate him after discovering his incestuous feelings towards his mother and hatred towards his father.
Freud said this was supported as while Hans' phobia improved, he remained afraid of horses with black harnesses, which apparently represented Hans' fathers mustache.
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What is the Oedipus complex?
. In the Phallic stage, Freud argued that boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mothers. They want to possess her for themselves, as they are in love with her. They also develop a hatred toward their father, wanting to get rid of him as they see him as competition
. However they worry about their father finding out and castrating them for their feelings. As a result they develop castration anxiety. In turn, they repress their feelings and in time begin to identify with their father, taking on his gender roles and moral values
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What is the Electra complex?
. Developed based on the work of Freud by Carl Jung
. He argued that in the Phallic stage girls begin to develop penis envy, as well as incestuous feelings towards their father
. Girls begin to hate their mother, as they blame their lack of a penis on their mother castrating them, and as they see her as competition for their fathers' love
. However the girl also loves their mother, and fears loosing this love if they reveal their feelings. As a result they repress their emotions and identify with their mother. Through this, they begin to internalise their mothers' moral values and gender roles.
. Girls give up their desire for their father and a penis, and replace it with a desire for babies
. Freud rejected this as he didn't see it as a substitution for castration anxiety. He also felt that girls never fully got over their penis envy
. Freud did argue that girls became morally weaker than boys after this stage, as they were motivated by a fear of losing their mothers love rather than castration anxiety
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What is a strength of the psychodynamic approach - real world application?
The psychodynamic approach introduced the idea of psychotherapy, as opposed to physical treatments. Freud himself introduced a new form of therapy in psychoanalysis, which represented the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically. It employed a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious mind, such as dream analysis (Freud described dreams as the 'royal road to the unconscious'). Psychoanalysis claims to help clients by bringing repressed emotions into the conscious mind so they can be dealt with. It is the forerunner to many modern 'talking therapies', such as counselling. This shows the psychodynamic approach to have had practical value.
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What is a counterpoint to the real world application argument - psychodynamic approach?
Freudian therapists have claimed success for many clients with mild neuroses, however psychoanalysis is seen as inappropriate and even harmful for people experiencing more serious mental health disorders, such as schizophrenia. Symptoms of schizophrenia, such as paranoia and delusional thinking, mean that sufferers cannot articulate their thoughts in a way required by psychoanalysis.
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What is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach - untestable concepts?
Much of the psychodynamic approach is untestable. Popper argued that the approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification, unopen to empirical testing and the possibility of being disproven. Many of Freud's concepts are said to occur at the unconscious level, making them difficult and perhaps even impossible to test. Furthermore his ideas were based on the subjective study of individuals, such as the Little Hans case study. so it is difficult to make universal claims about behaviour. This suggests that the psychodynamic approach is more of a pseudoscience.
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What is a strength of the psychodynamic approach - explanatory power?
The psychodynamic approach has strength in its ability to explain human behaviour. It has had a major influence on psychology and contemporary thought, occupying (along with the behaviourist approach) a large space in the field in the 20th century. It has been used to explain a range of phenomena, including personality development, the origins of psychological disorders, moral development and gender identity. It is significant in that it draws attention to the effects of early childhood on later development. This suggests that, overall, the approach has had a positive impact on psychology.
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What is a limitation of the psychodynamic approach - psychic determinism?
The psychodynamic approach suggests that much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood. Freud said that nothing was accidental - even slips of the tongue are driven by unconscious forces and have a deeper meaning.
This absolute dismissal of the influence of free will on behaviour can be seen as discouraging and overly harsh.
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Outline the humanistic approach:
An approach to understanding behaviour which emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determination. The humanisitic approach sees all people as essentially self-determining and as having free will. People are affected by external and internal influences, but are active agents who can determine their own development. Humanist psychologists reject scientific models which aim to generate general principles of human behaviour. They believe that psychology should take a person-centered approach, studying subjective experience rather than general laws.
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What is meant by free will?
The notion that humans can make their own choices, and that their behaviour/thoughts are not determined by internal biological or external forces
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What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
. A 5 level hierarchy of needs created by Abraham Maslow (1954)
. In order to reach the primary goal of self-actualisation, the 4 deficiency needs must be met.
. Physiological needs (air, food, water, sleep)
---> Safety needs (security of body, employment, recourses, health)
---> Love and belonging needs (friendship, family, sexual intimacy)
---> Esteem needs (self-esteem, respect for and from others)
---> Self-actualisation needs (morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, acceptance of facts)
. Basic physiological needs are at the bottom, and must be satisfied before higher psychological needs such as self-actualisation can be achieved.
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What is self-actualisation?
A persons motivation to grow psychologically and reach their full potential - to have personal growth.
Humanistic psychologists view personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be human.
Personal growth is concerned with developing as a person to become fulfilled, satisfied and goal-oriented.
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What is congruence?
The degree of fit between the ideal self and the actual self. The closer the match, the higher the self-worth of the person and the closer they are to self-actualisation. If too big of a gap exists, the person will experience incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the negative feelings that arise from incongruence.
The reduction of this gap is the aim of Rogerian therapy.
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What are conditions of worth?
When people (specifically parents) place limits or boundaries on their love for their children - love is only provided if the child behaves in a way the parent approves of.
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What is Unconditional Positive Regard?
Opposite of conditions of worth, where parents offer support and reinforcement regardless of what choice their child makes
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What is Carl Rogers' 'Client-centered therapy'?
A form of therapy created by Carl Rogers. Rogers referred to those in therapy as 'clients', not patients, as he saw the individual as the expert in their own condition. Thus the therapy is non-directive (not led by therapist) and the client is encouraged to the discovery of their own solutions.
Rogers believed that therapy should provide clients with genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard (a major aim of the therapy is to provide clients with the unconditional positive regard they were denied as children). Through this, the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self can be reduced and greater congruence is achieved, helping the client become a more functional person.
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What is a strength of the humanistic approach - not reductionist?
The humanistic approach rejects attempts to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components. Where the behaviourist approach explains learning in terms of stimulus-response connections, the cognitive approach sees humans as information processing machines, the biological approach reduce behaviour down to its basic physiological processes and Freud described behaviour as the product of unconscious conflicts, the humanistic approach advocates holism. As a result, this approach may have greater validity than its alternatives as it considers meaningful human behaviour in its real-world context.
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What is a counterpoint to the 'not reductionist' argument - humanistic approach?
Reductionist approaches may be more scientific: the ideal of science is the experiment, and experiments reduce behaviour to independent and dependent variables. In humanistic psychology, there are relatively few concepts that can be broken down to single variables and measured. As a result, the humanistic approach can be seen to lack empirical evidence to support its concepts.
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What is a strength of the humanistic approach - postive?
The humanistic approach is optimistic. It brings the person back into psychology and promotes a positive image of the human condition. Where the psychodynamic approach sees humans as prisoners of their past and argued that humans are almost constantly in a state of unhappiness or despair, the humanistic approach views people as basically good and free to work to the achievement of their potential. The humanistic approach offers a fresh, optimistic and motivating alternative to other approaches.
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What is a limitation of the humanistic approach - culturally biased?
The humanistic approach may be culturally biased. Many of its ideas center around ideas such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth - concepts which can be much more readily applied to countries with individualist tendencies, such as the US. Conversely, countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise the needs of the group and interdependence. In such countries, the ideals of humanistic psychology may not be as important as in others. Therefore it is possible that the approach cannot be universally applied, and is instead the product of the cultural context it was created in. This limits its value.
