Forensic Psychology Flashcards

Question

What book did Cesare Lombroso write in 1876? What theory did Lombroso suggest in this book? What did he base his theory on?

Answer 1

1876 - Cesare Lombroso, an Italian physician, eugenicist and phrenologist, wrote ‘L’Uomo Delinquente’ (Criminal Man). -In this book, Lombroso suggested his theory of the atavistic form. -His theory was based on his own study on criminals. -Lombroso’s work was also influenced by and seen as supporting the eugenics philosophy and its practices. -Eugenics, which was heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s biological concept of ‘survival of the fittest’, was developed by Sir Francis Galton (Darwin’s cousin) in the 1880’s as a method of improving the human race by increasing the occurrence of heritable characteristics regarded as desirable through selective breeding. -Based on the concept of social Darwinism.

Answer 2

A biological approach to offending that attributes offending behaviour to the fact that offenders/criminals are ‘genetic throwbacks’ - a reversion to a primitive subspecies ill-suited to the rules and expectations of modern society. -‘Atavistic’ = reversion to ancestral. -Offending behaviour an innate natural tendency, rooted in the genes of those who engage in it. -Suggests that some people are ‘born criminal’ - i.e innately and inherently prone to criminality - they are not responsible for their actions and should not be blamed. -Thus, criminals are biologically different from non-criminals in that they lack evolutionary development. -Criminals find it impossible to adjust to the demands of society and will inevitably turn to crime. -Such individuals are distinguishable by particular facial and cranial characteristics indicative of apes, lower primates, and early humans.

Answer 3

Lombroso (1876) - aimed to identify distinguishing facial and cranial features among Italian male convicts (in prison). -Examined and measured the features of 4000 criminals, as well as the skulls of 400 dead criminals. -No control group. Findings: -40% of those examined had atavistic features, which indicated that such people were more primitive in an evolutionary sense. -This relatively low correlation of 40% was used to justify an entire theory. Conclusion: -Lombroso concluded that there was an ‘atavistic form’ and that these features were key indicators, as well as the cause, of criminality. -He also said that certain atavistic features were associated with certain crimes.

Answer 4

Atavistic characteristics (SHREK): -Sloping, narrow brow (protruding forehead) -High cheekbones and facial asymmetry -(Really) large, prominent Jaw -Ears are long -K(c)urly hair Other non-facial/cranial ‘markers’ include: -Dark skin -Extra toes, nipples or fingers -Insensitivity to pain -Use of slang -Tattoos -Unemployment

Answer 5

-Murderers - bloodshot eyes, curly hair and long ears. -Sexual deviants - glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips and projecting ears. -Fraudsters - thin and ‘reedy’.

Answer 6

1) Kurtzberg (1968) - found that the recidivism (reoffending) rate of prisoners decreased following facial surgery - had surgery (42%), no surgery (70%) - suggest their behaviour improved because of the facial surgery. -Possibly as a result of the prisoners being treated differently due to their new appearance. -However, you would expect a recidivism rate of close to 0% to be objectively sure. 2) Kretschmer (1921) - found 4 somatotypes, each associated with certain crimes: -Tall and thin - petty thieves. -Tall and muscular - violent crime. -Short and fat - crimes of deception and sometimes violence. -More than one type - crimes against morality (e.g prostitution).

Answer 7

Advantages: -Hugely influential - the first to establish a more scientific basis for the study of crime - ‘the father of modern criminology’ (he himself coined the term ‘criminology’). -Revolutionary - Lombroso’s ideas challenged the Western notions of individual responsibility and that criminals were wicked or weak-minded. Instead, he offered a new perspective: that offending behaviour was innate and down to genetics - therefore an offender was not to blame for his actions. -Led to the study of further biological explanations later down the line - e.g genetic and neural. Disadvantages: -Unscientific - Lombroso’s theory of the atavistic form is speculative and naive by today’s standards. Correlation does not mean causation - there was a correlation of 40% in Lombroso’s study (not 100%). -As a fundamentally eugenicist theory, Lombroso’s research is pseudoscientific (pretend science) - the implication of a trait as desirable or undesirable is a subjective cultural choice, not a matter that can be determined through objective scientific inquiry. -Racist - DeLisi (2012) branded Lombroso’s theory as racist. E.g the atavistic features of curly hair and dark skin most likely to be found among people of African descent, therefore justifying and reinforcing pre-existing prejudices and stereotypes towards black people (in line with 19th century eugenic attitudes). -Exacerbated the criminal stereotype - social or environmental factors as to why people might commit crime ignored. -Gender bias (beta bias) - Lombroso only used men in his 1876 study. Yet, his theory of the atavistic form attempts to explain behaviour for both men and women. This weakens the validity of his explanation. Female offenders have different features: shorter, more wrinkled, darker hair, smaller skulls. -Deterministic - implies that people with atavistic feature have absolutely no free will to stop themselves from offending. -Also ignores the fact that facial and cranial characteristics are not always genetically determined. Poor diet or an injury are not accounted for in Lombroso’s theory. -Contradictory evidence - Goring (1913) - tested Lombroso’s atavistic form by comparing 3000 criminals to 3000 non-criminals. Found no difference between the groups in terms of facial characteristics - therefore, criminals are unlikely to be a primitive subspecies. -Lack of control - unlike Goring, Lombroso did not compare his offender sample with a non-offender control group. This is a confounding variable because it ignores the links between crime and certain social conditions such as poverty and lack of education. These links may explain why offenders were more likely to be, for example, unemployed or have certain physical characteristics.

Answer 8

Propose that one or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour - suggests that offending behaviour is to some extent inherited.

Answer 9

MAOA gene - the ‘warrior gene’. -The MAOA gene provides instructions for the making an enzyme called monoamine oxidase A (alpha) - (the MAO-A enzyme). -The MAO-A enzyme regulates serotonin (a monoamine) by breaking it down in the synapse after synaptic transmission.

Answer 10

MAOA is a candidate gene (creates vulnerability) for aggressive behaviour. -Some people have a low expression variant of the MAOA gene known as MAOA-L. -The MAOA-L gene produces less of the MAO-A enzymes. -Therefore less serotonin in the brain is broken down, causing levels to be high - so can’t be *regulated. -Serotonin is thought to play an important role in impulsive aggression and loss of control, leading to offending. *The main thing with levels of neurotransmitters is that they need to be stable (regulated) for our mood to be stable - and our genes are helping the neurotransmitters to produce expected behaviour. So don’t worry about genetic explanation saying high serotonin, and neural explanation saying low serotonin.

Answer 11

Han Brunner et Al (1993) - studied 28 men from a large Dutch family who were repeatedly involved in impulsively aggressive violent criminal behaviour. -Found that these men had the MAOA-L gene variant, and had abnormally low levels of the enzyme MAO-A enzyme in their brains. -Carrying the MAOA-L gene variant is sometimes referred to as ‘Brunner syndrome’ - characterised by impulsive aggressiveness and MAO-A enzyme deficiency.

Answer 12

The MAOA gene, and its variants (including MAOA-L) is located on the X chromosome. -Because males only have one X chromosome (XY), the gene cannot be diluted by another X chromosome, as is the case in females (XX). -This means that Brunner syndrome (i.e MAOA-L variant) is more likely to be inherited by men. -Suggests that men are more genetically predisposed to impulsive aggression - could potentially explain why most violent offenders are men.

Answer 13

Case et Al (1995) - studied genetically engineered mice to have low MAO-A levels. -Found that the mice had abnormal serotonin levels and behaviour. -They demonstrated increased levels of aggression and were aggressive during mating. -But, the findings can’t be generalised to humans as mice don’t have conscious thoughts and behave instinctively - so this study should only used as an additional layer of support.

Answer 14

MAOA not the only candidate gene linked to offending behaviour and violent crime. -The Cadherin-13 (CDH13) gene and CDH13 deficiency has also been linked to violent crime, as well as substance abuse and ADHD. -Tiihonen et Al (2015) - studied 900 offenders and found evidence of low MAO-A and CDH13 activity. Estimated that 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributable to either the MAOA or CDH13 genotypes.

Answer 15

Twin studies - illustrate the importance of genes. -Identical (Mz) and non-identical twins (Dz) are compared.

Answer 16

Christiansen (1977) - studied over 3500 pairs of twins in Denmark and established concordance rates for offending behaviour. Findings: -Male twins - found concordance rates of 35% (Mz) and 13% (Dz). -Female twins - found concordance rates of 21% (Mz) and 8% (Dz). Conclusion: -In both males and females, concordance rates for identical (Mz) twins is more than double that of non-identical (Dz) twins. This suggests that genes do play a role in offending behaviour - an element of heritability (albeit low) to criminal behaviour, meaning that predisposing traits can be inherited. -However, the concordance rates were not 100% for Mz twins, which suggests that there must be other factors influencing offending behaviour.

Answer 17

Grove (1990) - investigated the role of genes in offending behaviour, but using twins reared apart - all about minimising the effects of nurture (so we can see the real genetic contribution). -32 Mz twin pairs, who grew up in different environments, were assessed through tests and interviews in terms of alcohol/drug problems and symptoms related to antisocial behaviour in childhood and adulthood. Findings: -Found that there was a (statistically significant) positive correlation between genetic influences and symptoms of antisocial behaviour - 0.28 for childhood antisocial behaviour, and 0.41 for adulthood antisocial behaviour. Conclusion: -Suggests that there is a genetic contribution to offending behaviour (or in this case antisocial behaviour). -However, the correlations are relatively low / moderate, which indicates a contribution of environmental factors as well.

Answer 18

The diathesis-stress model is a model used in genetics for conditions (or behaviours) that may require environmental stressors to trigger them. 1) Genetic Predisposition - the vulnerability to committing crime from candidate genes (e.g MAOA-L, CDH13). 2) Environmental Stressor - an aspect of the environment which triggers the person to actually offend and become a criminal. E.g the MAOA gene had to be activated - usually by exposure to extreme violence. -Crime is not exclusively genetic - we know because concordance rates aren’t 100% for Mz twins. -However, there may be biological tendencies towards offending behaviour, which come about through this combination of genetic predisposition and an environmental trigger - e.g criminal role models, a dysfunctional environment, exposure to violence. -It’s about the interplay between genes and the environment. Epigenetics proposes that genes are switched on or off, altering genetic expression, in relation to environmental factors - aspects of lifestyle or events we encounter leave ‘marks’ on our DNA.

Answer 19

Propose that there may be neural differences in the brains of criminals compared to non-offenders - i.e dysfunctions of the brain and nervous system. -Considers how structures in the brain may be different in criminals, as well as differences in neurotransmitter levels.

Answer 20

-Serotonin - low levels may predispose individuals to greater impulsivity and a lack of self-control due to a lack of inhibition of impulsive urges by the prefrontal cortex. Dopamine hyperactivity may enhance this effect. -Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter) - high levels of noradrenaline have been linked to aggression and violence (because part of fight or flight).

Answer 21

Antisocial personality disorder (APD) - formerly referred to as psychopathy. -A disorder associated with reduced emotional responses and a lack of empathy. -It is a condition that characterises many convicted offenders - common among criminals. -Much of the research focuses on individuals diagnosed with APD - e.g Adrian Raine’s PET scans.

Answer 22

Adrian Raine has conducted many APD brain-imaging studies using PET scans (and MRI). -He has found that individuals with APD have reduced volume and activity in the prefrontal cortex - this caused the impulsiveness and lack of control associated with offending behaviour. Prefrontal cortex: -The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain involved in regulating emotional behaviour, planning, decision-making, and controlling moral behaviour in general (choosing between right and wrong). -Low activity and volume in the prefrontal cortex associated with impulsiveness and loss of control - can’t rationalise behaviour, which leads to poor decisions and possibly criminal behaviour. Research (prefrontal cortex): -Raine (2004) - 71 brain-imaging studies showed that murderers, psychopaths and violent individuals have reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex. -Raine et Al (2000) - MRI scans found an 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of 21 people with APD compared to a control group of 21 people without APD. -Overall summary of prefrontal cortex - reduced functioning/activity and volume of prefrontal cortex is common in violent offenders, suggesting less control over impulsive behaviour. Limbic system (amygdala): -Limbic system is the group of subcortical structures in the brain (including the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus etc…) thought to be closely involved in regulating emotional behaviour - including aggression. -The amygdala is part of the limbic system and is the brain’s emotional centre. -Reduced volume in the limbic system, particularly in the amygdala, associated with no remorse, guilt or empathy. Research (limbic system): -Raine et Al (1997) - studied the brain activity of murderers (found not guilty by reason of insanity - NGRI) and 41 non-murderers using PET scans. Found abnormal asymmetries and reduced volume in the limbic system of murderers, especially in the amygdala.

Answer 23

The prefrontal cortex develops relatively late, sometimes not fully developed until early 20’s and later in males. -This may explain the peak in antisocial behaviour in male teenagers.

Answer 24

Advantages: -Research support - from twin studies. -Diathesis-stress model takes into account both biology and environment. Disadvantages: -Issues with twin studies - works on the assumption of equal environments for twins growing up together. Even if you get around this by using twins reared apart, the environment is still a factor. -Biologically reductionist - there are other risk factors associated with criminality. -Deterministic - suggest the genes a person is born with determine their later behaviour - implies there is no free will.

Answer 25

Advantages: -Research support - Adrian Raine. -PET scans are an objective and scientific technique - adds value on top of social predictors in terms of whether an individual is likely to commit a violent crime or not - leading to possible early intervention. -Harmon (2012) - 60% of people in US prisons have had a brain injury. Disadvantages: -Biologically reductionist. -The link between neural differences and APD may be complex. Other factors could be involved in causing APD - e.g childhood neglect, trauma and exposure to other risk factors early on - so not as simple as saying that APD is caused simply by neural differences. -The environment may even impact physical structures in the brain. -Neuro-ethical dilemma - to what extent do we hold people responsible if they have early risk factors predisposing them to violent crime.

Answer 26

1) Eysenck’s theory - (*likely to come up in exam) 2) Cognitive explanations 3) Differential association theory 4) Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 27

Hans Eysenck, a German-born British psychologist, was an important figure in personality and intelligence research in the mid-20th century. -The theory of the criminal personality.

Answer 28

‘Halfway house’ - Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality is a psychological explanation as he says personality is shaped by interaction with the environment through the role of socialisation, but his arguments (about the nature of personality types) have a biological basis. -Interactionist approach (nature-nurture) - issues and debates. -Criminality a combined outcome of innate personality (i.e High PEN) and socialisation (where personality is shaped) - this is what makes Eysenck’s theory a psychological explanation.

Answer 29

Eysenck’s theory of personality (1947) - focused on personality in general - not yet applied to criminal behaviour and the idea of a criminal personality. Theory: -Eysenck said that personality is innate and therefore has a biological basis. -He said we inherit a type of nervous system that predisposes us to certain personality traits that vary along 2 dimensions - extraversion-introversion (E) and neuroticism-stability (N). -The extent to which you have these traits across the 2 dimensions determines your personality.

Answer 30

Eysenck (1964) - applied his general theory on personality to criminal behaviour, proposing a personality type called the criminal personality. Theory of the criminal personality: -Third dimension of psychoticism-sociability (P), added to extraversion-introversion (E) and neuroticism-stability (N). -Eysenck said that personality varies along these three dimensions, but that the criminal personality scores highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism - (‘High PEN’). -This personality type is no different to others in that it is innate. Therefore, if you inherit the criminal personality, Eysenck says you are predisposed to offending and becoming a criminal. -By contrast, most people would gain a low score on psychoticism and fall in the middle of the E and N spectrum.

Answer 31

‘High PEN’ - the criminal personality is someone who is extraverted, neurotic and psychotic.

Answer 32

Extraversion (correct spelling in psychology - not extroversion): -The personality trait referring to a state of being where someone draws energy from being with other people. -Characteristics - sociable/outgoing, talkative, impulsive, expressive (tend to flip very easily) and happy to take risks (criminality is inherently risky as your freedom is on the line). Introversion: -The personality trait referring to the state of being where someone draws energy from being alone. -Characteristics - happy on their own, reflective, cautious and self-aware. Biological basis for extraversion (and link to offending behaviour): -Extraversion is due to a chronically under-aroused nervous system (in terms of cortical activity - lower). -Because the nervous system is less responsive, this leads to thrill-seeking behaviour as the person seeks out external stimulation - hence more likely to engage in risky behaviour (possibly criminal activity) and more impulsive. -Extraverts also do not condition easily and do not learn from their mistakes - hence more likely to reoffend. Biological basis for introversion: -Introverts have higher levels of cortical activity than extraverts - meaning their nervous system is highly responsive and so they require less external stimulation. -This explains why introverts are less outgoing and take less risks.

Answer 33

Neuroticism - the personality trait that is characterised by emotional instability, anxiety/nervousness, irritability and a tendency to overreact to stressful/threatening situations. -In contrast, stable individuals (i.e low in neuroticism) are emotionally stable, calm, carefree, resilient and unlikely to react in stressful situations. Biological basis for neuroticism (and link to offending behaviour): -Neurotic individuals have an over-aroused sympathetic nervous system (SNS) - leads to swift and strong reactions (e.g fear and aggression) to stressors in stressful situations. -This means neurotics tend to be nervous, jumpy, overanxious and prone to overreact to situations of threat. -Neurotics also have greater activation in the limbic system (amygdala), due to lower acitivation thresholds. This leads to emotions being triggered easily (poor emotional regulation) - hence more likely to commit emotionally charged crimes (‘crimes of passion’). -General instability makes their behaviour difficult to predict.

Answer 34

Psychoticism - the personality trait that is characterised as being cold, heartless, antisocial, insensitive, unemotional and prone to aggression. -In contrast, sociable individuals are empathetic, cooperative and friendly. Biological basis for psychoticism (and link to offending behaviour): -Psychotic individuals produce excessive amounts of dopamine. -Also have high levels of testosterone - hence why men more likely to be violent offenders. -Psychotic individuals more likely to commit a crime as they are aggressive and lack empathy.

Answer 35

The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), or Inventory (EPI) - a questionnaire which places respondents along the E, N and P dimensions to determine their personality type. -Originally just the E and N dimensions, but from 1964, the P dimension was added to allow the questionnaire to identify individuals with the criminal personality. EPQ/EPI (1947) Design: -The ‘E score’ (for extraversion) is out of 24 and measures how much of an extrovert you are. -The ‘N score’ (for neuroticism) is out of 24 and measures how neurotic you are. -To interpret the scores, your E score and your N score are plotted on a graph (see previous card 53), from which you can read your personality characteristics. The nearer the outside of the circle you are, the more marked/distinct your personality traits. -Included a lie scale (out of 9) to measure how socially desirable a person is trying to be in their answers - done by asking the same questions the opposite way around. Those who score 5 or more on the lie scale are probably trying to make themselves look good and are not being totally honest in their responses. Limitations of EPQ: -A very simplistic type of personality measurement scale - it is more than likely that you will come out with a personality that does not match what you thought before you took the test.

Answer 36

Personality is linked to offending behaviour via socialisation processes (where personality is shaped) - interaction with the environment is key in the development of criminality in Eysenck’s theory. -Criminality a combined outcome of an innate personality (i.e High PEN) and an inability for this personality to be shaped by socialisation - this is what makes Eysenck’s theory a psychological explanation.

Answer 37

-Eysenck saw offending behaviour as developmentally immature in that it was selfish and concerned with immediate gratification - hence why offenders can’t wait for things. Role of socialisation: -The process of socialisation involves children learning to delay gratification and becoming more socially orientated. -But because, as Eysenck believed, people with high E and N scores have nervous systems that make them difficult to condition, they are less likely to learn anxiety responses (e.g fear of punishment) to control antisocial impulses and more likely to act antisocially if the opportunity arises. -Therefore, it’s not that extraverted and neurotic people haven’t been socialised, it’s rather that they inherently (biology) lack the ability to easily condition (environment) - so can’t learn to control their own impulses from socialisation with others.

Answer 38

Eysenck and Eysenck (1977) - Eysenck and his wife, Sybil Eysenck, compared the EPQ scores of 2070 male prisoners to 2422 male controls - (all men - beta bias). -Found that, across all age groups, prisoners recorded higher scores on measures of E, N and P than controls. Eysenck and Eysenck (1973) - compared the EPQ scores of 264 UK female offenders to controls. -Found that the female offenders scored higher on the EPQ than controls - same findings as men.

Answer 39

Farrington et Al (1982) - reviewed 16 studies of offenders assessed on the EPQ. -Found agreements in terms of scoring highly on P, but not always on measures of E and N. -Suggests that not all 3 traits are required for offending behaviour. Küssner (2017) - very little evidence of consistent differences in EEG recordings of cortical arousal/activity between extraverts and introverts - casts doubt on the biological basis of Eysenck’s theory.

Answer 40

Strengths: -Research support - Eysenck and Eysenck (1977), Eysenck and Eysenck (1973). -Provides useful information about modifying the socialisation experiences of children who may have the potential to become offenders - i.e don’t condition easily. -Social desirability in the EPQ controlled with a lie scale. Limitations: -Contradictory research - Farrington et Al (1982) - only high on P, not E or N, Küssner (2017) - inconsistent evidence on cortical activity being different between extraverts and introverts. -Eysenck’s theory only possible to test on convicted criminals who have been caught - so we don’t know if the results would be the same for the criminals that haven’t been caught yet. It could be that the traits Eysenck identified are what led the criminals to getting caught. -Cultural bias - Eysenck studied mainly white western European participants guilty of property crimes (doesn’t measure personality for serious crimes). Bartol and Holanchock (1979) studied Hispanic and African-American offenders at a maximum security prison in New York. It was found that they were less extraverted compared to a non-criminal control group. Suggests that Eysenck took an ethnocentric view so his theory is not universal - can’t be generalised to all cultures. Offending behaviour may be a culturally relative concept. -Gender bias (beta bias) - his research mostly studied male offenders which minimises any potential differences between men and women. -Too simplistic - massively oversimplifies offending behaviour and ignores other personality factors. Digman’s Five Factor Model (1990) suggests that there are additional dimensions along which personality can be measured. -Moffitt (1993) - said personality traits alone are a poor predictor of how long offending behaviour will go on for. -Assumes that personality traits remain stable and consistent in any context or environment - personality is too complex and dynamic to be categorised or quantified as a fixed EPQ score.

Answer 41

Focuses on whether the way offenders think and process information is different to that of non-offenders.

Answer 42

The way a person thinks about right or wrong (morality) and distinguishes between the two (reasoning). -Lawrence Kohlberg saw morality as a spectrum. -He said that babies are not born with the concept of right and wrong, rather it develops in stages as we grow up (expanding on Piaget’s theory of moral judgement for children).

Answer 43

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development - suggests that moral development (i.e the process in which people learn to distinguish between right and wrong) occurs in a series of 6 progressive stages. -Each stage belongs to one of 3 levels of moral reasoning - i.e the level at which individuals understand and approach moral decision-making and behaviour using their own value system. -The higher the level, the more sophisticated the moral reasoning and the more behaviour is driven by a sense of what is right, rather than by just avoiding punishment or the disapproval of others (i.e stage 1 and 2). -Each level represents a more developmentally advanced form of moral understanding.

Answer 44

1) Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality (age 0-9) - children’s decisions shaped primarily by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. -Stage 1 - Punishment and obedience orientation - doing what is right because of fear of punishment - following the rules (which are seen as fixed) avoids punishment. -Stage 2 - Hedonistic orientation (self-interested) - doing what is right for personal gain or a reward. 2) Level 2 - Conventional morality (adolescence to adulthood) - the acceptance of social rules regarding what is good and moral from society and from role models. -Stage 3 - Interpersonal concordance orientation - doing what is right according to social expectations and roles (emphasis on conformity) - rules followed for approval from others (‘good boy’/‘good girl’) -Stage 4 - Law and order orientation - doing what is right to maintain social order - rules followed to do one’s duty and to respect authority. 3) Level 3 - Post-conventional morality (some adults, but rare - only 10% of adults reach this level) - a deeper understanding of abstract principles of morality is developed. -Stage 5 - Social contract and individual rights - doing what is right even if it is against the law - the law/rules too restrictive. -Stage 6 - Universal ethical principles orientation (morality of conscience) - doing what is right according to our inner conscience, which has internalised principles of justice and equality.

Answer 45

Kohlberg (1968) - applied the concept of moral reasoning, and his levels of moral reasoning, to offending behaviour. -Kohlberg said that crime is committed by individuals with a lower level of moral reasoning. -He suggested that, whilst non-offenders generally progress to the conventional level, offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level. -At the pre-conventional level of reasoning, breaking the law is justified if punishment can be avoided whilst gaining a reward. This immature and child-like reasoning reflects that of adults and adolescents who reason at this level, and may commit crime as a result. -Individuals who reason at higher levels tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours such as honesty, generosity and non-violence.

Answer 46

Conventional level - people at this level might think committing a crime is justified if it helps to maintain relationships (e.g maintaining order in the family). Post-conventional level - people at this level might think committing a crime is justified if the law is violating individual rights - (e.g Just Stop Oil). -Despite this, Kohlberg said that, for the most part, offending behaviour happens at the pre-conventional level of moral reasoning - not saying crime is exclusive to this level, but this is the level that career criminals are at.

Answer 47

Kohlberg (1973) - interviewed youths using *moral dilemmas - controlled for social background. He found that violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development compared to non-violent youths. Kohlberg (1984) - interviewed 58 Chicago boys (aged 10-16) every 3 years for 20 years on the same ten dilemmas. Found that the reasons given for the decision tended to change as the children got older. -Cross-cultural research found that the stages of moral development were universal. Also, middle class children in all cultures progressed quicker than lower class children. Moral dilemmas: -Kohlberg based his theory on responses to moral dilemmas. -These dilemmas were scenarios designed to measure a person’s level of moral reasoning, each level giving progressively sophisticated reasoning. -E.g the Heinz dilemma - a woman was dying of a special kind of cancer and there was one drug that can save her (a form of radium). The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist is charging 10x the production costs for a small dose. The woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money but could only gather half. The druggist will not lower the price. What should Heinz do? -3 reasonings: don’t steal drug and don’t go to prison (pre-conventional), steal drug and accept prison sentence (conventional), steal drug but view going to prison as unfair (post-conventional).

Answer 48

Palmer and Hollin (1998) - compared moral reasoning in 332 male and female non-offenders with 126 convicted offenders using the Socio-Moral Reflection Measure-Short Form (SRM-SF), which contains 11 moral dilemma-related questions. -Found that the offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender group - consistent with Kohlberg’s predictions, showing a link between level of moral reasoning and crime.

Answer 49

Thornton and Reid (1982) - found that pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes for financial gain, such as robbery, rather than impulsive crimes like assault. -Shows Kohlberg’s theory may not apply to all crimes. Krebs and Denton (2005) - said that moral thinking is not the same as moral behaviour, and that the moral reasoning Kohlberg was interested in is more likely to justify behaviour after a crime, rather than explain why the offending behaviour took place.

Answer 50

Strengths: -Research support - Kohlberg (1973), Kohlberg (1984), Palmer and Hollin (1998). -Since Kohlberg argued that the pre-conventional level of morality is usually complete by the time a child is 9 or 10, this is in line with the age of criminal responsibility which is 10. -Useful in shaping intervention programmes - get people to change the way they think about morality. Limitations: -Thornton and Reid (1982), Krebs and Denton (2005). -Beta bias - Kohlberg mainly used men in his research. -Cultural bias - mainly did his studies in America.

Answer 51

Faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves, others and the world inaccurately (and usually negatively). -We all occasionally show evidence of faulty thinking when explaining our own behaviour (especially if it’s unexpected or out of character). -But, in terms of criminal behaviour, such distortions (biased/dysfunctional ways of thinking) allow an offender to rationalise, justify or deny the seriousness of their behaviour. E.g “it’s their fault I broke into their house as they left expensive TVs on show”.

Answer 52

Gibbs et Al (1995): -Cognitive distortions are errors or biases in people’s information processing system. -Cognitive distortions allow reality to become twisted, so that what is perceived as true, no longer represents what is actually true. -Identified cognitive distortions as important in offending behaviour because a distorted view of reality leads to abnormal behaviour - i.e offending behaviour.

Answer 53

1) Hostile attribution bias 2) Minimalisation / Minimisation

Answer 54

The tendency to judge ambiguous situations, or the actions of others, as aggressive and/or threatening when in reality they may not be - all about assuming the worst. -A tendency to misinterpret social cues is associated with a propensity for violence or aggression. -An offender may misread a non-aggressive cue (e.g being ‘looked at’, pulling trousers up, rolling sleeves up) and respond in a violent and disproportionate manner - the cue acts as a trigger for negative thoughts. -Negative thoughts lead to the behaviour. -The behaviour is justified by attributing hostility to the victim - i.e saying that others were being confrontational when they are not. -Perhaps a projection of how they’re feeling towards the people they perceive to be hostile.

Answer 55

Schönenberg and Justye (2014) - 55 violent offender presented with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. -Found that they were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry or hostile than a non-aggressive matched control group of offenders. -Highlights the cognitive differences between violent offenders and non-violent offenders - perceive others and situations differently. Dodge and Frame (1982) - showed children a video clip of an ‘ambiguous provocation’ (i.e the intention was neither clearly hostile or clearly accidental). -Found that ‘aggressive’ and ‘rejected’ children more likely to interpret the situation as hostile compared to children classed as ‘non-aggressive’ and ‘accepted’. -Suggests that hostile attribution bias is rooted in childhood.

Answer 56

A type of deception that involves downplaying the significance of an event or emotion. -Involves denying or downplaying the seriousness of an offence by attaching a ‘euphemistic label’ for the behaviour. -A strategy for coping with feelings of guilt - e.g burglars may say things like “I’m supporting my family”, “They’e got loads of money”, or “I’m just doing my job’” as a way of lessening the seriousness of what they do. -Sexual offences are particularly prone to minimalisation - not because they actually feel guilty, but because they realise how disturbing their crimes are viewed in society and need to cope (hence a type of deception).

Answer 57

Barbaree (1991) - found that out of 26 incarcerated rapists, 98% exhibited some denial or minimisation, 54% denied they had committed an offence at all, and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim. Pollock and Hashmall (1991) - 35% of child molesters argued that their crime was non-sexual, and 36% claimed the victim had consented. -Sexual offences prone to minimalisation - sexual offenders often minimise their offence due to the heinous nature of their crimes - they may even shift the blame to their victims.

Answer 58

Cognitive distortions may cause the abnormal thinking and behaviour which lead to offending behaviour. -These distortions may also affect the moral reasoning behind some offences.

Answer 59

Strengths: -Real-world application - CBT can be used to challenge irrational thinking. In the case of offending behaviour, offenders are encouraged to ‘face up’ to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions. -Hawkins et Al (2010) - reduced incidence of denial and minimalisation in therapy is associated with a reduced risk of reoffending. -Hostile attribution bias can explain reactive aggressive behaviour better than pre-meditated aggression. Weaknesses: -Distortions are not used in the same way by all offenders - it depends on the type of offence. -Hostile attribution bias can only be used for violent offences (especially reactive aggression), whereas minimalisation can be for a wider range (e.g theft, sexual offences etc…). -Howitt and Sheldon (2007) - non-contact sex offenders (accessed sexual images on the internet) used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders (physically abused children). Also, those with a history of offending were more likely to use distortions as a justification. -Minimalisation isn’t necessarily the source or root cause of the offending, rather a distortion that allows the offender to rationalise their actions. Cognitive treatments can’t change factors unrelated to thinking (e.g paedophilia). -Distortions can’t be used in the identification of potential offenders - because you can’t predict future offending.

Answer 60

Strengths: -Cognitive theories are good at describing the criminal mind. -They may also reduce reoffending in the long term by establishing starting points for therapy - e.g overcoming minimalisation. Weaknesses: -Cognitive theories do not help in predicting future offending - i.e distorted thinking doesn’t mean a person will become an offender. -Most research relies on hypothetical dilemmas or scenarios - can’t necessarily be generalised to thinking in a real-life situation.

Answer 61

Differential association theory - proposes that individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour through association and interaction with others (socialisation). -A social learning theory of offending - suggests that offending is learned in the same way as any other behaviour, from the environment. -It is the relationships/associations we have with different people that shape our behaviour (hence differential association) - e.g family, friends. -Sutherland set out to develop a set of scientific principles that could explain all types of offending (not just deprived or uneducated). -Moves away from the idea of offending being genetically determined or due to some kind of character weakness.

Answer 62

-Sutherland suggested that an individual is more likely to become a criminal if they are surrounded by more people with pro-criminal attitudes. -If the number of pro-criminal values a person is exposed to outweighs the number of anti-criminal values, the person is likely to go on to offend. -Pro-criminal attitudes are learned through the process of socialisation, and positively reinforced through acceptance and approval (reinforcement affects offending if the rewards are greater than the rewards for not offending). Mathematical calculation: -Sutherland said that it is possible to predict the likelihood of a person committing a crime by identifying the frequency, intensity and duration of exposure to deviant, pro-crime values. High frequency + high intensity + high duration = likely to commit a crime.

Answer 63

1) Learning of attitudes towards crime. 2) Learning of specific criminal techniques. -Offending arises from these 2 factors - usually both.

Answer 64

-All about exposure to values towards the law. -If the number of pro-criminal values a person is exposed to outweighs the number of anti-criminal values, the person is likely to go on to offend - because they will have acquired these values. -The learning process is the same vice versa - i.e a person learns conformity to the law.

Answer 65

-In addition to being exposed to values about why they might want to commit a crime, the person may also learn how to carry out a crime - i.e the particular methods and techniques required. -E.g how to spot signs of an empty house, disable a car alarm, pick someone’s pocket.

Answer 66

According to Sutherland, socialisation in prison leads to reoffending as inmates will learn more pro-crime attitudes, as well as new specific techniques from other, perhaps more experienced offenders. -In this way, prisons are like schools of crime rather than places of rehabilitation. -Learning may occur through observation, imitation or direct tuition from criminal peers.

Answer 67

Farrington et Al (2006) - Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. -A prospective longitudinal study of the development of offending and antisocial behaviour in 411 males. -All 411 males were at the age of 8 when the study began in 1961. -They were all from a working-class, deprived inner-city area of South London. Findings: -By the end of the study, 41% of the 411 males had at least one conviction between age 10 and 50. -The average conviction career lasted from age 19 to 28 and included five convictions. -A small proportion of participants (7%) were defined as ‘chronic offenders’ - they accounted for about half of all officially recorded offences in the study. -The most significant childhood ‘risk factors’ at age 8–10 for later offending were family criminality, risk-taking, low school attainment, poverty and poor parenting. -The criminal activities in which those who were studied engaged in, were similar to the ones they had learned. Conclusion: -Suggests that offenders will come from families and groups who have pro-criminal norms and values - hence supports Sutherland’s theory as the offenders are socialised by inappropriate role models who positively reinforce offending behaviour. -But, the risk factors at age 8-10 also point to factors outside of just family associations, which suggests that there are other factors which lead to offending - not just family criminality.

Answer 68

Strengths: -Shifted the focus and emphasis of explanations for offending behaviour away from early biological accounts of offending - e.g Lombroso’s atavistic theory (eugenics), or the idea of a criminal personality. -More realistic explanation of offending - says that social circumstances and the role of environments are more to blame than weak or immoral individuals with deviant personalities. -Realistic solution - environments can be changed, whereas personality and biology cannot. -Can account for offending within all sectors of society. Sutherland said that his theory could be applied, not just to the deprived and uneducated lower classes, but to the wealthier middle classes too. Whilst some offences, such as burglary, may be clustered within working class communities, other ‘white-collar’ offences are clustered amongst more affluent groups - e.g tax or insurance fraud. Here, pro-crime values exist in the same way that they do amongst poorer people. Shows that it is not just the lower classes who share deviant norms and commit offences. -Intergenerational transmission of criminality (through socialisation) - i.e passed down, not through genes, from one generation to the next, can explain why people with no family history of crime (so no genetic variation) might turn to crime if surrounded by pro-crime values. -Osborne and West (1979) - found that where there is a father with a criminal conviction, 40% of the sons had committed a crime by age 18, compared to 13% of sons on non-criminal fathers. Suggests that criminality runs in families as a result of social learning. -Walmsley et Al (1992) - found that 1/3 of the UK prison population also had relatives in prison too - suggests that criminality is concentrated in a small number of families. -Organised crime families - e.g Italian-American Mafia members grow up and are socialised within mafia culture. Limitations: -Correlation not causation - the relationship between pro-crime values and offending is purely correlational - no cause and effect. This suggests that there are other factors that are involved - could be that offenders seek out other offenders. -Environmentally deterministic - suggests that offending behaviour is only about associations with other criminals. Ignores the role of nature. -The fact that criminality is somewhat inherited (Osborne and West) and is concentrated in a small number of families (Walmsley) could be interpreted as support for the influence of genetic factors in predisposing people to offend - although there is no genetic evidence that can explain why families tend to commit the same specific crime. -The diathesis-stress model takes into account a wider range of approaches - a combination of nature and nurture - i.e intergenerational offending can be explored from a biological and an environmental perspective. Innate vulnerabilities may be triggered by childhood experiences. -Not scientific as impossible to test - very difficult to test the mathematical and ‘scientific’ predictions of differential associations - can’t measure the frequency, intensity or duration of pro-crime and anti-crime values a person has been exposed to as they are not operationalised - so can’t see which values outweigh which. -Social sensitivity - runs the risk of stereotyping people from certain backgrounds. Despite saying that offending was not exclusive to a certain group, Sutherland’s theory suggests that individuals from impoverished, crime-ridden (exposed to pro-crime values) backgrounds will inevitably turn to crime, no matter their individual circumstances or choices. -Less effective for explaining serious crimes - unlikely to be exposed to pro-crime values about serious indictable offences like murder and rape.

Answer 69

The psychodynamic approach, which originates from the work of Sigmund Freud, emphasises the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour and experience. -It is these ongoing and unconscious forces/dynamics in our mind that determine our thoughts, feelings and behaviour - e.g offending. -Freud also emphasised the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personalities as adults. -Whilst Freud himself did not address the issue of offending, other researchers have applied his key concepts to try to explain criminal behaviour.

Answer 70

The psychodynamic explanation proposes that offending is down to: 1) The inadequate superego - Ronald Blackburn (1993). 2) Maternal deprivation - John Bowlby’s MDH (1951).

Answer 71

Tripartite structure of personality (recap): -Id (unconscious) - birth to 18 months - the primitive part of our personality focusing entirely on self and pleasure - ‘pleasure principle’ - the Id gives in to selfish urges and impulses - coincides with the oral stage. -Ego (conscious) - 1-3 - the rational and conscious part of the personality - ‘reality principle’ - employs conscious defence mechanisms to mediate between the Id and Superego - coincides with the anal stage. -*Superego (unconscious) - 3-6 - the conscience / moral guide of our personality - ‘morality principle’ - coincides with the phallic stage where we develop our morals. Superego (3-6): -The superego is the moral component of our personality. It develops to counter the selfish Id and punishes the conscious ego for wrongdoing through guilt, whilst rewarding it with pride for good moral behaviour. Phallic stage (3-5): -The genitals are the focus of pleasure. -Runs parallel to the development of the superego, which forms at the end of the phallic stage when children resolve the Oedipus (castration anxiety) and Electra (penis envy) complexes. -The Oedipus complex (different for Electra) is resolved by strongly identifying with the same-sex parent and developing their moral principles - e.g boys identify with the father to stop ‘castration anxiety’ and take on his moral principles. -Freud said that boys identify more strongly with their same-sex parent, and therefore have stronger morals than girls. Explanation of offending: -The psychodynamic approach sees the superego as crucial in explaining criminality. -This is because, as the moral component of the personality, it is the part that decides between right and wrong. -Therefore, any childhood experiences that have a negative impact on the development of the superego, causing it to become inadequate, may offer an explanation for offending behaviour by giving the Id free rein - hence childhood is important.

Answer 72

Blackburn (1993) - argued that if the Superego (morality principle) is somehow deficient or inadequate, offending behaviour will be inevitable as the Id (pleasure principle) will have ‘free rein’ and cannot properly be controlled. -Primitive, emotional demands become uppermost in guiding moral behaviour. 3 types of deficient/inadequate superego (which make offending behaviour more likely): 1) Weak superego (absent parent) - occurs when the same-sex parent is absent during the phallic stage. Therefore, there is no opportunity for identification, so the child cannot internalise a fully formed superego (hence it’s weak). -This makes offending behaviour more likely. 2) Over-harsh superego (strict parent) - develops if the same-sex parent that a child identifies with is overly harsh/strict. Because the parent sets impossible expectation, the child feels unable to live up to the parent’s standards. The job of a healthy superego is to punish the ego for wrongdoing through guilt - a harsh superego cripples a person with guilt and anxiety (you’re just not good enough) - TOO MUCH GUILT. -This may lead to an unconscious drive to commit crime in order to satisfy the Superego’s overwhelming need for punishment - thus alleviating the guilt. 3) Deviant superego (criminal parent) - occurs when the superego that a child internalises has immoral or deviant values - e.g a criminal same-sex parent. -More likely to offend as their superego is less likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing - i.e the moral principles of the parent don’t punish the ego with guilt after committing a crime. NO GUILT.

Answer 73

Defence mechanisms (employed by the conscious ego) allow offenders to unconsciously justify their behaviour. E.g displacement - might explain why innocent victims are targeted as substitutes for real objects of anger.

Answer 74

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation is classed as a psychodynamic theory (don’t confuse with his ‘monotropic’ theory of attachment which is classed as evolutionary). -Bowlby’s MDH (1951) predicts that if an infant is deprived of an element of care from the mother or mother figure (substitute caregiver) during the critical period, there will be serious consequences - emotional and intellectual. -He said that the ability to form meaning relationships in adulthood is dependent on a warm, continuous relationship with a mother-figure, because the relationship with the mother acts as a template for all future relationships (IWM). Consequences: -Deprivation, and thus failure to establish a meaningful relationship with the mother, leads to affectionless psychopathy and delinquency. Affectionless psychopathy (and link to offending behaviour): -Affectionless psychopathy is a personality type characterised by a lack of guilt, empathy and concern for others. Such individuals cannot development close, meaningful relationships with others and are likely to engage in acts of delinquency (offending behaviour).

Answer 75

Bowlby (1944) - studied the link between maternal deprivation and affectionless psychopathy, but also delinquency (the main part for forensics). Method: -Interviewed children and families. -Compared 44 juvenile thieves with 44 non-delinquent children - all children were boys. Findings: -14 of the young thieves showed affectionless psychopathy - 12 of these 14 with affectionless psychopathy had experienced long periods of separation (deprivation) before the age of 5. -None of the non-criminal/control group showed affectionless psychopathy - only 2 of them had experienced prolonged separation (deprivation). Conclusion: -The effects of maternal deprivation lead to affectionless psychopathy, which in turn caused delinquent (criminal) behaviour.

Answer 76

Strengths: -Research support - Bowlby’s 44 thieves for his MDH, Goreta (1991) - found disturbances in Superego formation in all 10 of offenders who were Freudian-style analysed. -Psychodynamic explanations were some of the first to link early childhood experience to offending - now considered common sense in criminology. -Highlights the role of emotional factors - the psychodynamic explanation deals with the emotional life of the individual by acknowledging the role of anxiety and guilt (too guilty - harsh superego, vs. not guilty at all - deviant superego and affectionless psychopathy in MDH). -Implications for preventing delinquency in childhood - having strong parental figures (ideally with good morals to identify with) who are present continuously throughout the phallic stage and/or critical period. Weaknesses: -Kochanska et Al (2001) - found that parents who rely on strict forms of discipline tend to raise rebellious children who rarely express guilt - this contradicts Blackburn’s suggestion about the harsh superego inflicting too much guilt (leading to offending as a result). -Evidence that more males offend - contradicts Freud’s argument that men are moral than women due to male identification with the same-sex parent being stronger -Gender-bias - alpha bias as Freud assumes that girls develop a weaker superego due to identification not being as strong, and androcentrism as Freud focuses his theory almost entirely on men. The implication of this is that women should be more prone to offending than men, which they are not (imprisonment rates show the opposite). As for Bowlby, Germaine Greer said that he made mothers feel guilty for returning to work after having a baby. -Lack of falsifiability - psychodynamic concepts are unconscious so cannot be empirically tested. -Focuses on the problems within a person, so ignores the complexity of social conditions such as poverty, lack of education, deprivation - Sutherland’s differential association theory recognised these factors. -No evidence to suggest children without a same-sex parent commit crime more - e.g the vast majority of single-parent children do not turn to crime. -Maternal deprivation may be linked to other factors, such as poverty, which are the real causes of crime. -Psychic determinism - implies that criminality is all down to unconscious forces in childhood and that we are bound by these experiences for life (no free will) in relation to our choice to offend or not. Also ignores biological and environmental factors.

Answer 77

A decision made by a court that punishment for a crime should involve time in custody - either in prison (incarceration) or some other closed therapeutic/educational institution (a young offender’s institute or psychiatric hospital). -The most common form of punishment. *Likely to come up in exam

Answer 78

87,000 - the actual capacity of UK prisons is 78,000. -Overcrowding has led to prisoners having to share one-person cells with 2 or 3 other prisoners. -Has raised further questions about whether the prison system works (in terms of recidivism rates), the aims of prison and the psychological effects of the prison system.

Answer 79

1) Deterrence 2) Incapacitation 3) Retribution 4) Rehabilitation

Answer 80

Deterrence: -Prison is an unpleasant experience so as to deter people from engaging in offending behaviour. -Deterrence works on 2 levels: general deterrence - to send a broad message to general society that crime will not be tolerated, and individual deterrence - to prevent prisoners from reoffending in light of their experience. -Based on the behaviourist idea of vicarious punishment.

Answer 81

Incapacitation: -The offender is taken out of society (‘off the street’) to protect society and prevent them from reoffending. -The need for incapacitation likely depends upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender - a serial murderer or rapist is more a threat to the public than an elderly person who refuses to pay council tax.

Answer 82

Retribution: -Society is enacting revenge for the offence by making the offender suffer. -The level of suffering, and hence retribution, should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime - ‘eye for an eye’. -Alternative options to prison are seen as ‘soft options’.

Answer 83

Rehabilitation: -The idea that prisons should reform criminals through training, education and therapy, as well as punish them. -Offenders should be able to develop skills and access treatment programmes (e.g for drug addiction or anger). -They should also have the chance to reflect on their offence. -Upon release, offenders should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society. -Arguably the most important aspect of custodial sentencing - but often, in the UK, can’t be implemented effectively due to lack of funding.

Answer 84

1) Stress and depression 2) Institutionalisation 3) Prisonisation

Answer 85

-Suicide rates, self-harm and self-mutilation are considerably higher in prison - higher incidence of mental illness. -The experience of prison also increases the risk of developing psychological disorders following release. Evidence/research: -Curt Bartol (1995) - suggested that imprisonment can be brutal, demeaning and devastating - suicide rates 15% higher than in the general population. The most at risk are young single men in the first 24 hours of custody. -Prison Reform Trust (2014) - 25% of women and 15% of men reported symptoms of psychosis (e.g schizophrenia - losing touch with reality). -Abramson et Al (1989) - offenders initially feel helpless and hopeless on entering prison. -Shows that custodial sentencing is not effective in rehabilitating the individual, particularly those who are psychologically vulnerable, because the experience is detrimental to psychological health.

Answer 86

-Having adapted to the norms and routines of prison life, some find it impossible to cope with real life after release. -Prisoners become so accustomed to such a structured environment that they can’t function with a lack of regime - dependency. -Leads to lack of autonomy, conformity to roles and a dependency culture.

Answer 87

Prisonisation refers to the way in which prisoners are socialised into adopting an ‘inmate code’. -In prisons there are social hierarchies - from serial killers and murders at the top, down to rapists and abusers at the bottom. -Some behaviour considered unacceptable in the outside world may be encouraged and rewarded inside prison. -Prisons act as schools for crime, reinforcing a criminal lifestyle and criminal norms (the psychological impact) - leads to high recidivism rates (approx 70% of young offenders re-offend within 2 years). -Brutalisation (being treated in a cruel and savage manner) can also occur.

Answer 88

Cause and effect - the relationship between the psychological effects and imprisonment is not causal (purely correlational). -Prisoners might already have had psychological problems before - so prison may just make things worse. -Also, there may be positive psychological effects - e.g resulting from opportunities, treatment, rehabilitation, remorse etc…

Answer 89

Refers to reoffending, usually repeatedly - a tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behaviour (in this case crime). -Recidivism rates tell us the extent to which prison acts as an effective deterrent, as well as its effectiveness in rehabilitating prisoners. -A metric of whether prisons actually work. *Likely to come up in exam

Answer 90

Recidivism rates vary vary with time period after release, the age of the offender, the crime committed and the country in which the offence was committed. -UK - July-September 2021 - 21,000 out of 83,000 offenders released from custody, given a non-custodial sentence or given a warning reoffended within one year (25%). -The US has one of the highest recidivism rates in the world (44% reoffend within 1 year). -Norway has the lowest in Europe and the world (20% reoffend within 2 years) - very different prison system with a much greater emphasis on rehabilitation and skill acquisition. Norwegian prisons: -Take a more humane approach focused on rehabilitation so that prisoners are less likely to reoffend - it’s working. -The loss of freedom that comes with incarceration is punishment in itself, so prisoners shouldn’t be further punished with inhumane conditions. -The Norway model recognises that it makes little sense to add to the initial negative psychological effects that come from being incarcerated in the first place - this simply prevents vulnerable people from getting the help they may need. -The layout of the prison enables direct contact between prisoners and guards. There is access to nature and classes are deliberately spread around the prison grounds to add a sense of commute to the day. -Only possible with a low prison population, adequate funding and a strong social security system - which Norway has. However, the prison system feeds back into the loop by creating lower prison populations, with therefore less need for funding to be diverted away from rehabilitation.

Answer 91

Advantages: -Deterrence - higher suicide and self-harm rates suggests that prisoners do not enjoy prison. By learning indirectly through vicarious punishment, society is deterred from offending. In theory, prison as a deterrent reduces the likelihood of repeat offending. -Incapacitation - protect the public from violent offenders and psychopaths. -Retribution - the victims and their families feel a sense of justice when the offender pays for their crime - the knowledge that prison is unpleasant can be a comfort. -Rehabilitation - the most important aspect of custodial sentencing - prison offers access to education, mental health treatment, anger management, offending behaviour programmes, social skills training and employment opportunities - gives them the tools and qualifications for life after release. -Rehabilitation, if done properly, can be effective - e.g in Norway - lower recidivism rate (only 20% reoffend within 2 years). Less emphasis on incarceration, more on rehabilitation and skills development. -Prison conditions could be nicer than the everyday conditions some inmates are exposed to on the outside - it provides food, shelter, warmth, security and company. -No cause and effect between prison and its psychological effects - a confounding variable of prisoners having prior psychological problems. -Institutionalisation - works for some people as it gives them structure and purpose through prison regimes. Disadvantages: -Ignores individual differences - custody cannot rehabilitate or deter every prisoner. Punishment should fit the needs of the individual, not just the crime they have committed. -Custodial sentencing requires funding to be fit for purpose (i.e to reduce the likelihood of reoffending) - cuts to prison budgets mean that rehabilitation programmes and treatments (anger management, education, therapy and skills training) are not always available and cannot meet the demands of the prison population, especially vulnerable prisoners - this leads to prison system becoming a ‘revolving door’. -Overcrowding - often due to lack of funding and serves as an additional barrier to rehabilitation. 2023 UK prison population was 87,000, despite there being a capacity of only 78,000 - has led to prisoners sharing small cells with 2 or 3 other prisoners. Men make up 96% of the UK prison population - women just 4%. -Deterrence - high recidivism rates suggests that the unpleasant experience of prison is not an effective deterrent. Making the conditions more unpleasant strips prisoners of their human dignity. -Incapacitation - whilst custody takes prisoners off the streets, it does not stop them from committing crime in prison - e.g drug-related offences. -Short-term retribution means nothing if an offender will go on to cause future harm by reoffending. -Wider effect on prisoners’ families - prison may continue the cycle of crime for the children and families of offender’s - separation anxiety, attachment issues, financial challenges etc… -Damaging for young offenders - custody puts them on the path to committing crime in adulthood - most reoffend. -Community service, probation and restorative justice could be better forms of punishment - especially for low risk offenders (that way they keep their job and social contacts). Psychological effects on prisoners (disadvantages): -Stress and depression - suicide rates higher in prison (albeit a correlation) - the Ministry of Justice recorded 119 cases of prisoner suicide in England and Wales in 2016 - 1 every 3 days. Prison may push the psychologically vulnerable over the edge - including the majority of prisoners who have committed low-level offences. It does not to make sense to expose these prisoners to any negative psychological effects that may lead to repeat offending. -The Howard League for prison reform reported 10,000 known incidents of self-harm in 2008. -The psychological effects of overcrowding may also lead to increased stressed and a reduced chance of rehabilitation. -Rehabilitation - custodial sentencing may not be able to effectively rehabilitate prisoners due to the nature of the prison environment itself - oppressive prison regimes are detrimental to psychological health, therefore preventing rehabilitation. -Deindividualisation and dehumanisation (psychological effect) - prison leads to a loss of individual identity- e.g Stanford Prison Experiment (1973) - guards and prisoners wear uniforms. -Institutionalisation - being in an institution cannot replicate real-life, therefore any rehabilitation that takes place within an institutionalised setting is provisional. -Prisonisation - prisoners are socialised in an environment with a code of conduct and reward system that does not align with society. -More research is needed into reducing the negative psychological effects of imprisonment - this is so that offenders leave prison fully reformed and less likely to reoffend. High recidivism (why and potential improvements): -High recidivism rates in the UK and US has raised questions about whether the prison system and custodial sentencing works in relation to the aims and psychological effects of prison. -Deterrence - the strength of the deterrent isn’t effective without adequate rehabilitation. E.g US has the death penalty but has a very high recidivism rate. -Rehabilitation - adequate rehabilitation requires funding. -Psychological effects - prison doesn’t address the psychological problems that may have led to offences being committed - e.g may actually exacerbate these problems - e.g poor moral development, cognitive distortions (hostile attribution bias, minimalisation) etc… Prison may actually exacerbate these problems. -Institutionalisation - leads to released prisoners not being able to function on the outside, increasing the likelihood of them reoffending. -Prisonisation - confining different groups of criminals together leads to the development of criminal subculture. Also, inexperienced prisoners may pick up new attitudes and techniques from experienced prisoners, which leads them to reoffend with greater efficiency on the outside - prisons said to be ‘schools’ or ‘training grounds’ of crime. -Substance-abuse in prison - the availability of drugs and alcohol in prison is a risk factor for recidivism as it leads - correlated to engagement in violent acts as well as family and marital problems. -Prisoners often released back into the same environment with the same risk factors for crime - e.g social deprivation, unemployment. -Gendreau, Little and Goggin (1996) - a meta-analysis that found that there were static risk factors responsible for recidivism - gender (biology), age of first conviction, having a parent with a criminal record (environment/upbringing), present age and the type of offences committed. Demonstrates that the rehabilitation programmes in prisons cannot tackle the fixed/static risk factors that may lead to reoffending. Education and behaviour modification can only do so much. -Prisoners exposed to the same people associations (e.g pro-crime values - differential association theory), which may lead to the same outcome - recidivism. -Exposing low-level offenders to any negative psychological effects may lead to repeat offending that could be otherwise avoided - Peterson (1981) - 50% of crimes are committed by 8-10% of criminals. -Stigma attached to being imprisoned makes it difficult to reintegrate into society (e.g finding a job), increasing the likelihood of reoffending (recidivism) - labelling also leads to loss of social contacts. -For some, prison is preferable to the outside world so they will reoffend. -Implications on the economy and society - overcrowding and underfunding are barriers to reform and rehabilitation- but an emphasis on rehabilitation, as opposed to deterrence, would benefit society by enabling offenders to reintegrate back into society - therefore less likely to reoffend. This would lead to smaller prison populations which will in turn allow for rehabilitation to be more effectively implemented for a reduced number of inmates. -Prison Reform Trust (2007) - found that many prisoners had not yet reached the literacy and numeracy level expected of an average 11 year old - 50% without the skills required by 96% of jobs. 50% excluded from school. For prisons to work, it must offer the educational and skills based training so that offenders leave prison as better educated and more employable - they would feel better about themselves, leading to them becoming better citizens and less likely to reoffend.

Answer 92

An application of the behaviourist approach to treatment - that aims to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through the use of positive and/or negative reinforcement. -Works on the behaviourist principle that all behaviour is learned, in which case it is possible to unlearn behaviour. -Behaviour modification programmes are all designed with the aim of reinforcing obedient behaviour and punishing/trying to avoid disobedience in the hope that the latter dies out (becomes extinct). -Deployed as one of the several schemes / programmes that may form part of an offender’s custodial sentence.

Answer 93

The most commonly applied form of behaviour modification used in the management of offenders in prisons - introduced in the USA in the 1960’s. -Based on the principle of operant conditioning (learning through consequences). -Uses behaviourist principles as system of rewards and punishments for the management of offenders in prisons - rewarding prisoners for desirable/appropriate behaviour, and withholding rewards for undesirable/inappropriate behaviour. Aims: -To bring specific changes in behaviour - i.e extinguishing undesirable behaviours and establishing/promoting desirable ones.

Answer 94

Identifying and operationalising target behaviours. -A behaviour is identified and broken down into its component parts - e.g ‘improved interaction with inmates’ can be broken down into ‘speaking politely to others’ or ‘not touching other prisoners’. -These behaviours should be objective, measurable and agreed with other prison staff and inmates in advance. Examples: Desirable behaviour - avoiding confrontation / conflict with other prisoners, following prison rules, keeping one’s cell clean and orderly etc… Undesirable behaviour - fighting, disobeying prison rules (e.g hiding/using/selling contraband), not looking after one’s cell etc…

Answer 95

Primary and secondary reinforcers for the desirable/undesirable behaviours are decided. -The primary reinforcers are the rewards themselves - they are directly rewarding because they are something the prisoner wants. -The secondary reinforcers are the tokens - tokens are not rewarding in themselves but derive their value from their association with a reward (primary reinforcer). -All target behaviours and reinforcers (rewards and tokens) should be made clear to the prisoners before the programme is implemented. How it works: -Tokens (e.g plastic discs) are given to a prisoner as a reward each time they perform a desirable behaviour - some prisons might require points for tokens, others give tokens out directly. -Staff and prisoners should be made aware of the scoring system and how much each behaviour is worth in terms of tokens. -These tokens can then be exchanged for certain privileges/rewards - e.g extra visits, more time out of cell, time in the yard, extra cigarettes, phone calls, TV, conjugal visits (in US) etc… -This positively reinforces the desirable behaviour. -If a prisoner does not comply or obey, this may result in tokens, and the associated privileges, being withheld (punishment) - e.g no visits, more time in cell, segregation, no TV, no PlayStation etc… -The reinforcements should always outnumber the punishments.

Answer 96

A reinforcement schedule should be decided. -Once the schedule commences, the offenders progress is carefully monitored by trained staff. -Target behaviours are compared to baseline levels obtained through prior observation. -All about seeing if the token economy system is working in modifying the behaviour of prisoners - that’s the end goal. Training: -Prison staff must be given full training in order to implement the token economy system successfully. -This is to ensure that the procedures are standardised so that all prison staff are rewarding the same behaviours in the same way. -Staff must also record when they have awarded tokens - this is so the progress of individual prisoners can be assessed.

Answer 97

1) Hobbs and Holt (1976) - introduced a token economy programme with young delinquents in 3 behavioural units and compared to a 4th unit as a control. -Found that there was a significant improvement in positive behaviour as a result of the token economy system. 2) Rice et Al (1990) - used behaviour modification in an adult prison setting. -Found an increase in positive behaviours. -When the programme was stopped, the desirable behaviours reduced significantly - shows that token economy may only be effective in the short-term.

Answer 98

1) Blackburn (1993) - said that token economies have “little rehabilitative value” as positive changes are quickly lost when offenders are released. -Suggests that the change in behaviour is not genuine and cannot be sustained outside of the system. 2) Basset and Blanchard (1977) - the benefits of token economy are lost when staff apply the rules inconsistently.

Answer 99

Strengths: -Effective in the short-term - token economy systems do work. -Easy to organise and administrate in a custodial setting - no need for specialist professionals (e.g in anger management). -Cost-effective - don’t need to pay anyone. Limitations: -Little rehabilitative value - a short-term, surface level way of getting prisoners to behave. This is because it doesn’t change the way a person thinks. -Not representative of real life - conditions prisoners to expect to be rewarded for ordinary behaviours in the real world. -Prisoners might fake behaviour they know is desirable (e.g please and thank you to guards) only so they can get a reward - i.e gaming the system. -Can be ineffective if the system is not applied consistently by staff - e.g if staff aren’t trained properly. -Can lead to exploitation by prison hierarchies - e.g high profile prisoners bullying other prisoners for tokens or their rewards. -Unethical to withdrawal privileges, such as contact with loved ones, in a system which is not optional.

Answer 100

A therapeutic programme that involves identifying the cognitive factors that trigger anger and a loss of control, as well as learning techniques to calm down, bring about conflict resolution and deal with the situation in a positive way. -The aim of anger management is not to prevent anger, but to recognise and manage it. -Used in prisons to encourage self-awareness and to facilitate rehabilitation - especially in relation to violent offences.

Answer 101

Novaco (1975) - suggested that cognitive factors trigger the emotional arousal which generally precedes aggressive acts - i.e getting angry, as a behaviour, starts with how you think and perceive situations. -He said that, in some people, anger is quick to surface in situations perceived to be anxiety-inducing or threatening. Anger management programmes: -A form of CBT - the aim is to change the way a person thinks, and therefore the way they act.

Answer 102

1) Cognitive preparation 2) Skills acquisition 3) Application practice

Answer 103

Cognitive preparation: -Requires an offender to reflect on past experiences and patterns of anger. -They learn to identify situations and factors which trigger their anger. -If the way in which the offender interprets/perceives these triggering situations is irrational, the therapist’s role is to challenge these thought patterns (not about saying they’re wrong, but about getting them to see the situation in a different way). -By redefining the situation as non-threatening (more rational), the therapist is attempting to break what may well be an automatic response for the offender. E.g a prisoner may view someone looking at them as an act of confrontation - a therapist helps them to cognitively redefine the situation as non-threatening.

Answer 104

Skills acquisition: -Prisoners are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations more rationally and effectively (therefore avoiding triggers). -It’s all about being in control of your thoughts and aware of your emotions. Examples (of calming strategies): -Cognitive techniques - positive self-talk to encourage calmness, stopping and thinking, counting to ten. -Behavioural techniques - assertiveness training so that a person can communicate effectively to deal with issues in a constructive, non-violent manner. -Physiological techniques - dealing with the physical reaction to anger (increased heart rate, blood pressure, sweating) - e.g breathing exercises, relaxation training or meditation.

Answer 105

Application practice: -The final stage where prisoners are given the opportunity to practice their acquired skills within a carefully controlled environment. -Involves role-playing a variety of anger-inducing scenarios from the past, which may have led to violence. -The therapist will deliberately provoke the prisoner to assess their progress. -If the offender deals successfully with the role-play, this is given positive reinforcement by the therapist. -This stage relies on a certified amount of commitment from the offender - they must see each scenario as real. E.g role-playing using effective communication after a trigger to try and de-escalate feelings of anger.

Answer 106

-Conducted in small groups (usually around 10). -Lasts around ten sessions.

Answer 107

Keen et Al (2000) - studied the progress of a nationally recognised anger management programme (the National Anger Management Package) with 17-21 year old young offenders. -The course comprised of 2x 8 hour sessions. -Although there were initial issues of offenders not taking the course seriously, the final outcomes were generally positive. -Offenders reported increased awareness of their anger management difficulties and an increased capacity to exercise self-control.

Answer 108

Ireland (2000) - compared a group of 50 prisoners who had completed an anger management programme, to a group of 47 prisoners who were assessed as suitable for the course, but did not actually take it (control group). -Found that the prisoners who completed the course rated themselves lower on the anger questionnaire. -92% showed improvements on at least one measure of aggression and anger - seemed effective in the short-term.

Answer 109

Strengths: -An eclectic (broad) approach - stage 1 is cognitive, stage 2 is behavioural and stage 3 is social. -Can be effective in the short-term and potentially offers a more long-term solution than behaviour modification - this is because it changes the way an offender thinks, which may actually be causing the offending behaviour. -Can be used inside and outside of prison (unlike behaviour modification in token economy) - e.g ex-offenders serving a probationary period can access it. Limitations: -No long-term guarantee for preventing reoffending - little evidence of recidivism. -Not relevant to all crimes - not all crimes, even violent crimes, are motivated by anger. Anger management suggests that there is a straightforward causal relationship between anger and offending. -Its effectiveness is dependent on individual factors - e.g the commitment and motivation of the prisoner (‘treatment readiness’), as well as their relationship with the therapist. -Expensive - requires a highly-skilled therapist to deliver the programme.

Answer 110

A system which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with the victims/survivors/victims families. -Enables the offender to see the impact of their crime and serves to empower survivors by giving them a voice. -Switches the emphasis from the needs of the state (enforcing the law and punishing) to the needs of the individual victim (feeling compensated and able to come to terms with the crime). *Likely to come up in exam

Answer 111

Overall aims: -Seeks a positive outcome for both parties. -Less about retribution (punishing) and more about reparation (repairing the harm caused). Aims for offender: -Useful in their recovery/rehabilitation process - can take an active part in their rehabilitation. -Helps offenders to see the impact of their crimes and the harm caused. -All about accepting responsibility (but potentially also seeking forgiveness). Aims for victims/victims family: -Part of the healing process. -Can get their feelings and opinions across. -Gaining closure. -A chance to ask questions.

Answer 112

Setting: -Involves a supervised mediation between the victim and the offender - a trained mediator is present and in charge of this supervision. -The meeting is done in a non-courtroom setting - offenders volunteer to meet with survivors. -Can be face-to-face or conducted via video link. The conversation: -It is important that both parties have an active part in the discussion - the focus is on positive outcomes for both. -The survivor is given the chance to confront the offender and explain how the incident affected them. -This enables the offender to comprehend the consequences of their actions, including the emotional distress they’ve caused. -Other relevant community members may also have a role in the process by explaining the effects of the crime - e.g neighbours, friends, family members.

Answer 113

-Restorative justice may occur pre-trial - an offender’s involvement may be considered during sentencing. -It can also function alongside a prison sentence, as an alternative to prison (especially for young offenders), or as an incentive to reduce the length of a sentence.

Answer 114

Emotional restitution - the offender can support the victims healing process by repairing and rebuilding the survivor’s confidence and self-esteem. -This is different to the traditional form of restitution often seen in the form of monetary payment (financial restitution) for the psychological or actual physical damage caused.

Answer 115

The RJC is an independent body whose roles is to establish clear standards for the use of restorative justice, as well as to support survivors and the specialist professionals in the field. -Advocates the use of ‘restorative practice’ behind dealing with crime, but also in managing conflict in schools, children’s services, workplaces, hospitals and communities. -UK Restorative Justice Council (2015) - 85% satisfaction from victims who had taken part in face-to-face restorative justice meetings.

Answer 116

1) Sherman and Strang (2007) - reviewed 20 studies involving 142 men convicted of violence and property offences who had taken part in restorative justice. -Found that 11% reoffended compared to 37% of a matched control group. 2) Shapland (2007) - every £1 spent on restorative justice would save the government £8 through reduced reoffending. -Massively positive implications for the economy.

Answer 117

Strengths: -Especially effective with young, first-time offenders who are still impressionable and not yet career criminals (a much better alternative than prison). -Implications for the economy - would save the government money by lowering recidivism rates (Sherman and Strang 2007) - this is surely the purpose of custody. Limitations: -Only suitable for crimes where there is an obvious victim - e.g not suitable for financial crimes like fraud. -Inappropriate for sex offences and/or abuse cases - would traumatise the victim. -Only works if the offender feels genuine remorse and is willing to accept responsibility. -Offenders may abuse the system to try to get a reduced sentence. -May place the rehabilitative needs of the offender above the needs of the survivor. -Can’t change the past or bring back a loved one. -Costs involved in training mediators.

Forensic Psychology Flashcards

(141 cards)