Stress Flashcards

Question

What are the strengths and limitations of Selye’s GAS model (1936)?

Answer 1

Strengths: -Highly scientific. -Identified GAS as a non-specific response. Limitations: -Ignores individual differences - GAS may not be a general response to all stressors - different types of stressors have different effects, and also different people may react differently to the same stressor. -E.g Mason (1971) - extreme cold increased cortisol levels, extreme heat reduced them - challenges the validity of GAS - shows that specific stressors can produce specific responses .

Answer 2

White blood cells (leucocytes) - our defensive barrier against pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms).

Answer 3

Lymphocytes are white blood cells that produce antibodies to destroy pathogens. 1st line of defence (pathogen not been there before): 1) Natural killer (NK) cells - destroy pathogen-infected cells - prevent viruses and cancer cells from spreading. Second line of defence (immunity - recognises antigen): 2) T cells - Thymus gland secretes the hormone thymosin which produces T cells. -There are several types of T cells - memory T cells recognise pathogens, killer T cells destroy infected cells by locking onto them. 3) B cells - create antibodies.

Answer 4

Immunosuppression is when the immune system is prevented from working efficiently due to long-term (chronic) stress. E.g bereavement, marital disharmony, serious work problems, exam time, carers etc… -Whilst short-term stress is not dangerous, its the effects of long-term stress that can leave the body vulnerable to infection and disease (bacterial and viral).

Answer 5

-PAS system produces cortisol in response to a stressor. More cortisol produced if stressor persists. -Cortisol suppresses leucocyte activity and reduces the production of T cells. -This is because long-term stress shrinks and damages the thymus gland, which facilitates the production of T cells. -Therefore, the number of white blood cells available to fight foreign antigens is reduced. -This leads to greater vulnerability to the effects of pathogens - immune functioning suppressed. -This relationship is purely correlational - studies point to an increased risk rather than cause and effect - there are of course other mediating factors (e.g personality, lifestyle) - it would be unethical to put people under stress in experiments.

Answer 6

Merson (2001):

Answer 7

Janice Kiecolt-Glaser - looked at the effect of chronic stress on immunosuppression when: preparing for exams (1984), and caring for ill relatives (1995).

Answer 8

Kiecolt-Glaser (1984) - a natural experiment - investigated the effects of exams on 75 medical students: -The participants gave blood samples twice - one month before the exams started (low stress) and on the day of the first exam (high stress). -They also completed questionnaires measuring sources of stress and self-report psychological symptoms. Findings: -The activity of NK cells and killer T cells decreased between the first and second samples - evidence of immunosuppression due to stress. -This decline was most apparent in students who reported feeling most lonely, as well as those who were experiencing other stressful life events - evidence of other factors moderating stress. Evaluation: -Only shows correlation - not causation. -Natural experiment - stress not artificially induced.

Answer 9

Kiecolt-Glaser (1995) - again a natural experiment - investigated the effects of stress on wound healing - compared the healing of caregivers looking after a relative with Alzheimer’s, with a matched group of non-caregivers. -13 women in experimental group. 13 women in control group - (gender bias). -A punch biopsy (small wound) was made on each arm and all participants were given a 10-item/question stress scale. Findings: -Both tests indicated that the experimental group (the caregivers) showed higher stress levels than the control group. -Wound was photographed regularly - 48.7 days to heal for caregivers, 39.3 days for control group. The carers also had a larger average wound size.

Answer 10

Cohen (1993) - investigated the role of general life stress on vulnerability to the common cold virus. -Combined the responses of 394 participants into a stress index - participants then exposed to the common cold virus - 82% became infected. Findings: -Cohen found that the chance of developing a cold was significantly correlated with stress index scores - he concluded that life stress reduces the effectiveness of our immune system.

Answer 11

Strengths: -Kiecolt-Glaser’s research has led to students taking a relaxation training programme - their immune functioning was better. Weaknesses: -Correlation does not mean causation. -Some research points to acute stress having immunoenhancing effects - different to the effects of chronic stress. -E.g Dharbar (2008) - found that, in rats, mild stressors had a positive impact on the immune system - the bloodstream and body tissues were flooded with lymphocytes as the body was prepared for physical damage.

Answer 12

-Acute stress activates the sympathetic branch of the nervous system - adrenaline is produced causing an increase in heart rate and blood pressure. -The blood vessels constrict to facilitate the rise in blood pressure. -Sudden emotional arousal is linked to heart attack (myocardial infarction), where the heart muscle is damaged due to lack of oxygen caused by blockages in coronary arteries - i.e CHD).

Answer 13

If a stressor persists over a long period and becomes chronic, the fight or flight system and its effects can become damaging. -An increase in heart rate wears the blood vessels and increases heart rate. -Repeated high levels of adrenaline affect the heart muscles directly. Cardiovascular disorders: -Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) - caused by atherosclerosis - the narrowing of the blood vessels due to a build up of plaque. Stress leads to increased glucose levels, leading to clumps of plaque blocking the blood vessels. CHD can lead to heart attack (myocardial infarction). -Hypertension (high blood pressure consistently maintained over a period of time). -Hypertension begins the process of arteriosclerosis - the hardening and thickening of the arteries due to the buildup of plaque in the inner lining of an artery caused by high blood pressure. -Stroke - damage caused by disruption of blood supply to the brain. Cortisol: -Cortisol is produced by the parasympathetic branch of the nervous system - cortisol causes an increase in blood glucose levels (it’s a glucocorticoid) which causes the build up of plaque over time. As well as this, cortisol as a glucocorticoid can lead to type 2 diabetes, which in itself predisposes for atherosclerosis and CHD. -In the short-term, cortisol constricts the blood vessels to increase blood pressure so that oxygenated blood can be delivered to the muscles. Over time, arterial constriction and high blood pressure can also lead to blood vessel damage and the build up of plaque - leads to CHD.

Answer 14

Lifestyle factors such as smoking, alcohol, diet etc - highlights that the link between stress and cardiovascular disorders is purely correlational, rather than a cause and effect relationship. -However, because stress is associated with greater alcohol consumption, caffeine intake and smoking, this shows how stress can lead to behavioural factors linked to CHD.

Answer 15

Williams et Al (2000) - investigated if anger was linked to heart disease. -Gave a questionnaire to 13,000 people - none had heart disease - the questionnaire contained a 10 question anger scale. Findings: -After 6 years the health status of the participants was checked - 256 had developed heart attacks - those who had scored highly on the anger scale were 2.5x more likely to have had a heart attack. -As anger is a form of stress (the ‘fight’ in fight or flight), it shows that chronic stress can cause cardiovascular problems.

Answer 16

Wilbert-Lampen et Al (2008) - looked at incidences of heart attacks in German football supporters during matches played in the 1996 World Cup. Findings: -When Germany played, cardiac emergencies increased by 2.66 times - appears that acute emotional stress can more than double your risk of a cardiovascular event (although there could be other factors like increased alcohol consumption and drug use on match days).

Answer 17

Yusuf et Al (2004) - participants from from 52 countries of differing cultures included. -15,000 people who had had a heart attack (myocardial infarction, MI) were compared with a similar number who had not. Findings: -Several chronic stressors linked with MIs - e.g workplace stressors and stressful life events. -Yusuf concluded that chronic stress contributes to the onset of, and severity of, CVDs.

Answer 18

Strengths: -Lots of research supporting the link between stress and CVDs. Weaknesses: -Stress increases the risk of CVDs - it is not a direct causal factor - its effect is mediated by personality type and lifestyle. -There are genetic factors that predispose individuals to developing disorders like CHD.

Answer 19

Any feature of the environment that causes stress - includes workplace stress, minor hassles and major changes in our lives.

Answer 20

Significant and relatively infrequent events/changes in people’s lives - a common source of stress. E.g marriage, divorce, a bereavement, a new arrival in the family, a better or worse financial state.

Answer 21

Life changes can be major stressors because they are not everyday events. -They are stressful because they cause us to make some kind of psychological adjustment to adapt to changed circumstances. -The bigger the changes, the greater the adjustment and associated stress. *Note - it’s not about a life change requiring more psychological energy, it’s about it requiring a psychological adjustment.

Answer 22

The effects are cumulative - all the life changes add together because, jointly, they require more change/adjustment to adapt. -It doesn’t matter if the life change is positive or negative - both are stressful because they place new demands on the individual, who has to make a significant adjustment in order to adapt. -However, of course, some life changes and events mean different things for different people.

Answer 23

Holmes and Rahe were both heart doctors. -They were interested in the impact of life changes (the source of stress) on illness - they believed that people were more likely to show symptoms of illness following a period of stress.

Answer 24

-Holmes and Rahe (1967) examined the records of 5000 patients and made a list of 43 life events/changes of varying seriousness which seemed to cluster in the months preceding the onset of the patients’ illness (heart disease). SRRS: -To make their observations objective, Holmes and Rahe needed to devise a scale. -They assigned marriage an arbitrary value of 500 and then asked 400 ‘judges’ to assign a number to each of the other life events in terms of the intensity and the length of time necessary to accommodate regardless of the desirability of the event relative to marriage. -Holmes and Rahe took the average (mean) values assigned to each event and divided by 10. -Each of the 43 life events was ranked in a scale knows as the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS).

Answer 25

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) - a self-report method of measuring life changes in relation to stress. Each of the 43 life changes was accorded a value known as a life change unit (LCU) - a number corresponding to the intensity and the length of time necessary to accommodate/adjust - not to do with how desirable the event is. -Death of spouse - 100 LCUs (highest on scale - so most amount of adjustment needed - twice as much as marriage). -Minor violations of the law - 11 LCUs (lowest on scale - so least amount of adjustment needed). -Marriage - 50 LCUs - only 6 events judged to be more stressful than marriage. -Changing job - 36 LCUs. -Christmas - 12 LCUs - not everyone celebrates Christmas (westernised scale).

Answer 26

Holmes and Rahe added up the experiences of the patients in the 12 months preceding their illness (heart disease), to form an overall LCU score. This overall LCU score was essentially a measure of life stress that patient had experienced in the preceding year. Findings: -An LCU score of under 150 (for the preceding 12 months) increases the chance of stress-related illness by 30%. -An LCU score of 200-300 increases the chance of stress-related illness to 50%. -An LCU score of over 300 increases the chance of stress-related illness to 80%. -The range of health problems included sudden cardiac death, heart attacks, tuberculosis, diabetes, leukaemia and sports injuries.

Answer 27

Holmes and Rahe (1967) concluded that: -Stress can be measured objectively as an LCU score - the amount of change a person has had to adjust to during a 12-month period. -A person’s chance of becoming ill following this period corresponds to a probability. This probability is a risk factor. E.g LCU over 300 = 80% risk.

Answer 28

Strengths: -Validity - self-report measures like questionnaires have high validity - stress is a very personal experience and therefore self-report is very appropriate. -SRRS still used in some form today - easy to use - participants simply indicate which life changes apply in the period of time - typically 12 months. Weaknesses: -The SRRS is a self-report measure and is retrospective - has problems with social desirability and accuracy of recall, which reduces the reliability of the scale for measuring life changes. -The SRRS does not show that the life events cause illness - life events are correlated with illness - the calculated probability is only a risk factor - other factors may be involved. -Individual differences not acknowledged - some people see different events in different ways - so to broadly assign a value is problematic - e.g some people might celebrate a divorce. -Validity - internal validity questionable as the SRRS does not distinguish between positive and negative events. -Reliability - test-retest varies - could be because of all the factors linked to retrospective data - e.g social desirability. -The controllability of the life change might also cause stress rather than just the level of adjustment needed - changes in our control may be less stress-inducing. -Culture - SRRS is a fairly westernised scale - e.g some find Christmas stressful, some find it relaxing, some don’t even celebrate it. Collectivist cultures don’t even recognise divorce. -SRRS may not be suitable for young people - items like marriage or divorce don’t really apply. -SRRS tend to mix together the causes and effects of stress - sometimes an illness may actually cause stress, not the other way around.

Answer 29

Rahe et Al (1970) - wanted to investigate whether scores on the SRRS were correlated with the subsequent onset of illness in a PROSPECTIVE study (rather than retrospective). -In other words, trying to establish a link between life changes and susceptibility to stress-related illness.

Answer 30

-Rahe took 2500 males serving in the US Navy, who were about to go on a tour of duty, and gave them the SRRS questionnaire to assess their experiences in the past 6 months. -A total stress score (total LCUs) was calculated for each participant. -Then, over the following 6-month tour of duty, detailed records on the sailor’s health were kept (no matter how minor the issue was) - afterwards an illness score was calculated. -The stress scores (number of LCUs) were correlated with the sailors’ illness scores.

Answer 31

-Rahe found a very small (weak) positive correlation between life change scores (LCUs) before the tour and illness scores once aboard the ship. -As life change units increased, so did the frequency of illness. -There was a correlation coefficient of +0.118 - the only reason this correlation was found to be statistically significant was because of the large sample size (2500).

Answer 32

-Experiencing life events increases the chance of stress-related illness - life changes a robust predictor of later illness. -As +0.118 is not a perfect correlation of +1, clearly other factors must also play a role.

Answer 33

Strengths: -Correlation (albeit small). -Very large sample size - 2500 men - the reason why the correlation is significant. Weaknesses: -Hard to generalise people’s every day lives to US Navy personnel - unique, high-stress job. -The sample was restricted to males - this is androcentric (focused/centred on men) which could mean the study is beta biased (ignores differences between men and women). -Research suggests that men and women use different strategies to cope with life changes. -American - ethnocentric - SRRS is perhaps only appropriate for western, individualistic cultures. -Controllability of different life changes not taken into account - life changes in our control may be less stress-inducing. -Individual differences, such as personality, not taken into account in relation to stress. -LCUs do not distinguish between positive and negative changes.

Answer 34

-Thomas et Al (1997) - higher LCU scores predicted a greater mortality risk in heart patients - shows that heart problems (an existing issue) influences illness. -Rosengren et Al (1993) - higher LCU scores associated with higher mortality risk in elderly participants - shows that age is another factor that influences illness. Other factors clearly involved in increasing risk to illness - not just stress.

Answer 35

Daily hassles are the minor but frequent annoyances and frustrations of everyday life. E.g misplacing things, missing the bus or train, falling out with a friend, weight issues, household chores. -Hassles range from trivial inconveniences to greater pressures, but don’t approach the significance of major life changes. -Life changes are distal sources of stress - the effects are indirect, whereas hassles are proximal sources of stress - the effects are direct and immediate. -Life changes exert their effects on well-being through daily hassles. *Likely to come up

Answer 36

Daily hassles are usually short-lived, but if unresolved, the after effects may intensify and accumulate with subsequent hassles. 2 explanations: 1) The accumulation effect - minor hassles build up and multiply, leading to a stress reaction. 2) The amplification effect - minor hassles amplified by chronic stress from life changes. Major life changes exert their effects on well-being through daily hassles. E.g exam stress might lead to an inability to cope with small disagreements with friends.

Answer 37

Lazarus et Al (1980) - argued that we experience two phases when we experience a hassle. 1) Primary appraisal - we subjectively assess how threatening a hassle is to our psychological health. 2) Secondary appraisal - if this hassle is perceived as threatening, we subjectively assess how well equipped we are to cope with the hassle.

Answer 38

A minor positive or desirable experience that makes a daily hassle more bearable. E.g spending time with family, completing a task, sleeping well, keeping in touch with a friend. -Uplifts can counteract the effects of hassles, thus reducing stress - although there are mixed findings on this.

Answer 39

The Hassles and Uplifts scale (HSUP). -The HSUP scales measures how many hassles a person experiences in a given time period, and how severe the hassles are. -It also measures how many uplifts a person experiences in this period.

Answer 40

Whether daily hassles were a better predictor of psychological illness than life changes - i.e which source of stress is the most stressful. Procedure: -100 participants (48 men and 52 women - no beta bias) aged 45-67 each completed a 117-item hassles scale. -Each participant completed the scale for hassles once at the end of every month for 9 months. (Uplifts NOT assessed). -They also completed a life events scale on two occasions - before and during the study. -Finally, each participant completed the Hopkins Symptom Checklist to assess symptoms of anxiety and depression. Findings: -Significant positive correlation between frequency of hassles and psychological symptoms of depression and anxiety. -The more hassles a participant experienced, the more severe their symptoms were. -No correlation between life events during the study and health. -Therefore, hassles were found to be a stronger predictor of psychological symptoms than life changes.

Answer 41

Bouteyre et Al (2007) - investigated the relationship between daily hassles and the mental health of students during the school to university transition. -First year students completed the Hassles and Uplifts Scales - that’s the 117 item hassles scale and the 135 item uplifts scale. Findings: -Positive correlation between scores on the HSUP scale and those suffering from depression (Beck’s Depression Inventory used) - i.e daily hassles a risk factor for depression. -Demonstrates the amplification effect - frequent hassles amplified by the big life change of going to university. Real-world implications: -Pastoral care needed for students in the transition period.

Answer 42

Gervais (2005) - investigated how daily hassles AND uplifts affected job performances for nurses. -Nurses kept diaries for a month and recorded both hassles and uplifts. Findings: -Hassles (e.g lack of beds for patients) increased the job strain on nurses, decreasing job performance. -However, uplifts improved the nurses performance at work, counteracting the hassles. EVIDENCE FOR UPLIFTS COUNTERACTING HASSLES

Answer 43

Strengths: -No beta bias in Kanner et Al (1981). -Primary appraisal in Lazarus et Al (1980) demonstrates how different individuals interpret hassles in different ways. Explains individual differences in how stress affects us. Weaknesses: -Causality - research is correlational - hassles are a risk factor for adverse effects on health and well-being, not a cause. -Other factors involved - e.g personality. -Kanner et Al (1981) - risk of attrition (dropping out) due to questionnaire length - 117 items long. -Social desirability from questionnaires - e.g participants don’t want to admit that their children hassle them. -Retrospective date - relies on accurate recall of participants.

Answer 44

A self-report measure of the stress associated with everyday hassles and uplifts - uplifts thought to offset the hassles. Devised by DeLongis et Al (1982), the HSUP consists of: 1) The Hassles Scale - 117 items - from Kanner et Al (1981) - e.g losing things, rising prices, weight issues etc… -The frequency of the hassle in a given time, as well as the severity of the hassle on a 3-point scale (somewhat, moderately or extremely severe) are recorded. 2) The Uplifts Scale - 135 items - e.g job promotion, good relation with friends, good weather etc… -The frequency of the uplifts in a given time period are recorded by the individual.

Answer 45

Strengths: -Like the SRRS, the HSUP scale has a continuing influence on research - it’s a credible way of measuring how stress acts as a risk factor for psychological illness. -The scale is useful in a clinical setting for finding the root cause of someone’s stress. Weaknesses: -Use of self-report has some disadvantages: social desirability, accuracy of recall (retrospective data) - all weaken the reliability and validity -HSUP scale is a very long questionnaire containing over 250 items - likely that respondents won’t maintain concentration. -Test-retest correlations support the idea that respondents don’t maintain full concentration - the the correlation co-efficient for the severity scores of hassles is only +0.48 for (a weak positive correlation), and the correlation co-efficient for the frequency ratings of uplifts is only slightly higher at +0.60. This shows that participants scores lack reliability. -Cultural differences - the scale is westernised so many of the items only relate to western perceptions of hassles. -The contamination effect - mix together the causes and effects of stress - many items overlap with the symptoms of stress so cannot be seen as a cause (applies to SRRS also).

Answer 46

-Heart rate, blood pressure, hormone levels (blood, urine or saliva).

Answer 47

Physiological methods are objective as they use scientific measurements - e.g an ECG for heart rate. -They overcome the subjectivity of self-report methods.

Answer 48

-The rationale is that when we experience stress, the sympathetic branch of the ANS is aroused (fight or flight). -Adrenaline and noradrenaline are produced - leading to a number of effects which can be measured - heart rate, blood pressure, sweat etc…

Answer 49

A physiological measure of sweating which is related to sympathetic arousal of the ANS caused by a stressor. -Human skin is a good conductor. The wetter the skin, the greater the conductance of electrical activity.

Answer 50

When we sweat more, this can be detected as greater electrical conductance across the skin - especially in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet (lots of eccrine sweat glands). 1) Two electrodes are attached to the index and middle fingers of one hand. 2) A weak electrical current (0.5V) is applied to the electrodes so that the conductance across the skin can be measured in microSiemens. 3) The signal is amplified and displayed on a machine. -Tonic conductance - baseline measure of conductance when we are at rest - no stimuli. -Phasic conductance - a measure of conductance when something happens (e.g a stressor).

Answer 51

-The onset of a response results in a rise of conductance until it reaches a peak. There is then a gradual decay. -The whole response can typically last 4 or 5 seconds.

Answer 52

-Along with heart rate, respiration and blood pressure, the SCR makes up part of a polygraph, or ‘lie detector test’. -Also used in the treatment of phobias or anxiety.

Answer 53

Measuring hormone levels. E.g Johansson et Al (1978) - compared the levels of adrenaline in urine between ‘finishers’ and ‘cleaners’. -Collected urine samples 4 times a day. -Found that finishers, who had low control and a high workload, had higher levels of adrenaline at the start and end of the day. The cleaners, who mad more control and greater flexibility, saw their adrenaline levels decrease over the day.

Answer 54

Strengths: -Baseline measurement (tonic conductance) always taken beforehand - addresses some individual differences. -More scientific - Physiological measurements are objective measurements reliably associated with experiences of stress - overcomes the subjectivity and bias of self-report methods. Weaknesses: -Correlational - other factors may mimic the stress response - e.g caffeine, drugs. -Some people sweat a lot, some people swear very little. -Also, there are ‘stabiles’, whose SCRs hardly vary at all, and ‘labiles’, whose tonic and phasic SCRs are very active. -Failure to take into account these individual differences threatens the validity of the study.

Answer 55

The workplace can be stressful for a number of reasons, but there are 2 factors which have attracted a great deal of attention: 1) Workload 2) Control

Answer 56

The amount of time and effort required in a job - either underload or overload.

Answer 57

The degree of freedom a worker has to control their own workplace environment - the autonomy to make decisions and do their job how they wish.

Answer 58

Karasek (1979) - The job demands-control model (or job-strain model) of workplace stress. -The model states that high demands at work (overload) can lead to poor health, dissatisfaction and absenteeism. -But, this relationship can be modified or regulated by the amount of control an employee has at work. -Having job control acts as a buffer against the negative effects of job demands. -Essentially, if your workload is too high, and your feelings of control are low, you’re likely to suffer from workplace stress.

Answer 59

Johansson et Al (1978) - investigated the role of workload and control by comparing ‘finishers’ and ‘cleaners’ in a Swedish sawmill. Procedure: -Quasi experiment - 24 male workers at a Swedish sawmill. -Wood finishers - high workload / low control - 14 workers - job was complex, repetitive, constrained and isolated. The wages of everyone else on the production line depended on their productivity. -Wood cleaners (control group) - low workload / high control - 10 workers - greater flexibility, more contact with other workers and less responsibility. -Researchers collected 4 urine samples a day - 1 before work, 3 during - to measure levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline (fight or flight). -Workers also had to fill out a self-report questionnaire on their caffeine and nicotine intake, as well as their emotions, well-being and irritation. Findings: -Finishers had twice as high adrenaline levels as their baseline measures. -Finishers’ adrenaline levels rose throughout the day. -Finishers had more cases of absenteeism and stress-related illness (e.g headaches). -Finishers reported feeling more rushed and irritated. -Cleaners saw their adrenaline levels peak before work, but decrease throughout the day. -Cleaners reported greater well-being than finishers. Conclusion: -High workload and low control creates chronic physiological arousal which in turn leads to higher levels of stress hormones and the development of stress-related illness. Strengths: -Supports the job demands-control model. -Combines physiological measures with self-report methods - objective and subjective measures used. -Any social desirability controlled because responses matched the objective physiological measures. Weaknesses: -Correlational - other factors could be involved in raising stress levels. -Not very generalisable - all Swedish and a very niche job, so not representative of the whole workforce. -Beta bias - all men so minimises/ignores the differences between men and women when making a conclusion about workplace stress. -Social desirability - workers don’t want to lose their job.

Answer 60

Marmot et Al (1997) - a prospective study of over 10,000 London civil servants to see the relationship between job control and stress-related illness. Procedure: -Over a 3-year period, 10,000+ men and women (aged 35-55) were asked to complete self-report surveys. -The surveys, and an independent assessment of work environment, were used to measure job control. -Records also kept of stress-related illness. Findings: -Found that participants who reported having low job control (lower grade civil servants) were 4x more likely to die of a heart attack than those with high job control. -They were also more likely to suffer from other stress-related disorders such as cancers, strokes and gastrointestinal disorders. -Higher grade civil servants (high workload and high control) developed fewest cardiovascular problems (e.g CHD). Conclusion: -Job control the prominent factor in workplace stress. -Less control in the workplace associated with an increased risk of CHD. Strengths: -Big sample size. -Generalisable - office workers - men and women. -Implications for the economy - give people more control and they’ll be less stressed and more productive. Weaknesses: -Correlational - impossible to determine cause and effect. -Other factors - job security and high pay may also reduce stress and risk of illness. Low pay = poorer diet, so not just lack of control. -Self-report method vulnerable to social desirability.

Answer 61

Strengths: -Research support. -Workload as a source of stress is culturally variable. Weaknesses: -Not all workplace stress concepts are recognised across cultures. -Does not take into account the range of workplace stressors - a simplistic model. -Key issue not the workload or lack of control but the perception of these things. -Having job control may be more stressful than not having it - dependent on individual differences such as self-efficacy.

Answer 62

A set of characteristic behaviours, attitudes and general temperament that remain relatively stable and distinguish one individual from another. -Difficult to define because it relies on the assumption that behaviour is determined.

Answer 63

There is a debate around whether these fixed categories exist. -If they do exist, then it suggests behaviour is determined. -But there are always going to be environmental factors or circumstances where a person may behave differently. Therefore, it’s difficult to put someone in one category.

Answer 64

Friedman and Rosenman (1959, 1974) - they treated patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) and came to believe that CHD might be associated with a certain pattern of behaviour.

Answer 65

1) Type A - linked to stress and stress-related illness. 2) Type B - less vulnerable to stress-related illness.

Answer 66

Type A: -Competitive - goal-orientated and ambitious - strive for perfection. -Time-urgent - impatient, proactive, speaking quickly - often multi-tasking workaholics. -Hostile - aggressive, intolerant and inflexible. -Type A personality believed to lead to high blood pressure and raised stress hormones (role of adrenaline and cortisol) which can lead to CHD.

Answer 67

Type B: -Relaxed and easy-going. -Patient - one thing at a time. -Less competitive. -Express feelings. -Less vulnerable to stress-related illness.

Answer 68

At opposite ends of a continuum - type A at one end, type B at the other. -Type X - a mixture of type A and B.

Answer 69

Friedman and Rosenman (1959) - the Western collaborative group study (WCGS) was used to test their observations as cardiologists. -Aimed to see if type A’s (high stress personality type) were more likely to develop CHD compared to type B’s.

Answer 70

Procedure: -A prospective study of 3000 Californian men aged between 39-59 - participants healthy from the outset. -Part one of the study determined their personality type through a structured interview - their responses were assessed for levels of competitiveness, time urgency and hostility. -Interviews were also conducted in a way to incite type A behaviour - interviewer was aggressive and participants were interrupted. -Once classified on the basis of their interview, participants were assessed over a period of 8 and a half years - *(1974 was when the findings of the study were published - obviously past 8 and a half years). -Any incidence of CHD was recorded and a correlational analysis was carried out to test the relationship between type A/B with CHD.

Answer 71

Findings: -Of the original 3000, 257 had developed coronary heart disease in the 8 and a half year period. -70% of this 257 had been classified as type A. -This was nearly twice as many as type B, even when other risk factors (blood pressure, smoking and obesity) were taken into account. -Type A’s also had higher levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline, as well as higher blood pressure and cholesterol levels. -Positive correlation between personality type A and CHD. Conclusion: -The impatience and hostility associated with type A’s caused a raised physiological stress response, which in turn made them vulnerable to CHD. -The high levels of stress hormones suggest that they do experience more stress than type B’s.

Answer 72

Strengths: -Interviews to assess personality type backed up by levels of stress hormone - findings match the science of the physiological stress response. High blood pressure can lead to a build up of plaque. Also, the stress response inhibits digestion which leads to higher blood cholesterol levels and a greater risk of CHD. -Practical implications - can improve health-related outcomes by making people aware of their personality type. They may then be able to avoid other risk factors or make changes to their behaviour to lower the risk of stress-related illness. Limitations: -Gender-bias and beta-bias - all men so ignores or minimises any potential differences between men and women in relation to personality type and CHD. -Findings also lack population validity - all Californian men. -Type A’s more likely to smoke - reduces validity of conclusion about personality types and stress. -Ragland and Brand (1988) - confirmed the importance of risk factors, thus challenging the significance of personality as a risk factor of CHD. -Type A personality too broad - encompasses too many different traits. -Carmelli (1991) - hostility may be the only crucial type A component linked to illness.

Answer 73

A third personality type - Type C. -Believed to be linked with cancer.

Answer 74

Type C: -‘People pleasers’ - described as manifesting pathological niceness. -Strive to be compliant. -Extremely patient. -Passive. -Self-sacrificing. -Repression of emotions.

Answer 75

-Because type C’s wish to avoid conflict above all else, they frequently repress their emotions (learned helplessness). -It is this repression of negative emotions, including anger, that is believed to incur a risk of cancer. -This is due to the impact of chronic stressors on the immune system. Repression vs suppression: -Whilst repression involves unconsciously blocking unwanted thoughts or impulses, suppression is entirely conscious - you try to block negative thoughts out.

Answer 76

Dattore et Al (1980) - wanted to investigate the relationship between type C personality and cancer. Procedure: -Studied 200 Vietnam War veterans - a prospective study. -75 had cancer, 175 did not (control group). -Several years before their diagnosis, they had all completed self-report questionnaires to measure their repression of emotions and symptoms of depression. Findings: -The 75 cancer patients reported significantly greater emotional repression and fewer depression symptoms than the non-cancer group. -Suggests that people who repress their emotions (in the Veterans’ case to survive) are more vulnerable to illness (cancer). -However, psychological illness (depression) would not be evident due to an unconscious burial of negative emotions - they are not aware that they are depressed. Conclusion: -Supports the theory of a relationship between type C personality and cancer.

Answer 77

Strengths: -Research support - Dattore et Al (1980). Limitations: -All men - gender bias and beta bias in relation to conclusions about type C personality and cancer. -Research linking cancer to type C personality is plagued with inconsistencies. -E.g Greer and Morris (1975) - found a link between breast cancer and emotional suppression - but only in women under the age of 50.

Answer 78

A personality factor associated with thriving in stressful circumstances where others don’t. -Gives us the existential courage to deal with stress, and the determination to keep going despite setbacks and future uncertainties.

Answer 79

Kobasa (1979) - Hardiness consists of the 3 C’s: -Commitment -Challenge -Control -All related to cognitive appraisal - how a person assesses and perceives stressors.

Answer 80

-Hardy people show greater involvement in their work and personal relationships - feel a strong sense of involvement in the world. -Put 100% into whatever they do - don’t give up easily.

Answer 81

-Hardy people perceive stressful situations as a challenge - an opportunity for personal growth and development - an obstacle to overcome. -Don’t see a stressful situation as a threat. -They are resilient and welcome challenge.

Answer 82

-Hardy people feel they are in control of their lives - internal locus of control. -Less likely to blame others or experience learned helplessness (links to type C personality). -They take responsibility - they feel their stress is not controlled by external factors.

Answer 83

Kobasa (1979) - wanted to investigate personality factors that could help people (especially managers in work organisations) cope with the stress of their jobs. Procedure: -Measured the life changes of 670 male American middle and senior business managers aged 40-49. -Holmes and Rahe’s SRRS used. -Experiences of illness also recorded, as well as days off work.

Answer 84

Findings: -150 of the participants were classified as having high stress according to their SRRS scores (LCU of 300+). -Of the participants who experienced illness, 86 had a high stress / low illness record, whereas 75 had a high stress / high illness record. -This suggested that there is something modifying the effects of stress. -3 months later, this missing factor was found. -Participants completed a hardiness questionnaire assessing commitment, challenge and control. -The 86 in the high stress / low illness category scored highly on all 3 hardiness characteristics. The 75 scored lower on these variables. Conclusion: -A hardy personality type encourages resilience. -Hardy people less likely to suffer from stress because of this resilience helps them cope. -Hardiness provides defences against the negative effects of stress.

Answer 85

Strengths: -Big sample size. -Real-world application - qualities of hardiness can be trained in the form of mental resilience. -Hasel et Al (2011) - tested a hardiness training programme with university students in Iran. Found a significant increase in hardiness in the training group, and a decrease in perceived stress. -Lifton et Al (2006) - students at 5 US universities who had low hardiness were more likely to drop out. -Useful for exam preparation. -US Navy Seals and other elite military units are screened for hardiness - explains why some soldiers are better able to combat war related stress. -Hardiness affects physiological response - believed to decrease the ability of stressful events to produce sympathetic arousal - linked to lower resting blood pressure levels. Weaknesses: -Beta-bias - all men - reduces the validity of the theory. -Some components more important than others - commitment and control. Hull et Al (1987) said control is most important. Contrada (1989) said challenge is most important. -Validity - research into hardiness is based on measures that lack validity - i.e self-report.

Answer 86

1) Psychological symptoms - the feeling of anxiety. 2) Physiological symptoms - the physical response (fight or flight) - i.e feeling sick, heart pounding.

Answer 87

Treatment involving chemicals that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain or other body systems. -Drug therapy for stress seeks to give relief from stress-related anxiety - can help the psychological and the physical symptoms.

Answer 88

1) Benzodiazepines (BZs) 2) Beta blockers (BBs)

Answer 89

Benzodiazepines (BZs) are drugs that lessen the anxiety associated with stress by enhancing the effect of the GABA neurotransmitter, which helps calm us down. -E.g Valium (diazepam), Librium -BZs work directly on the CNS (the brain) - mode of action on the brain. -Reduce the psychological symptoms of stress by reducing the physiological arousal in the brain (CNS). -Most common drug to treat stress and anxiety in the short-term (work quickly because they act directly on the brain).

Answer 90

GABA: -GABA, a neurotransmitter, inhibits the activity of neurons in most parts of the brain (40% of neurons respond to GABA). It is the body’s natural anxiety relief mechanism. -GABA does this by binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. -This makes it less likely that the postsynaptic neuron will fire, in turn reducing the likelihood that the signal will be passed on. This slows neural activity. BZs: -BZs enhance GABA’s natural inhibition by also binding to GABA receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. This makes the neuron more responsive to GABA and less responsive to other neurotransmitters. -When GABA locks onto these receptors, it lessens the ability of the neuron to transmit signals, making it even more resistant to excitation - because the output of excitatory neurotransmitters is reduced. -The person feels calmer. Serotonin: -BZs also reduce any increased serotonin activity which reduces anxiety. -Serotonin is a mood-regulating neurotransmitter with an arousing effect on the brain. Too little = depression. Too much = anxiety (due to its arousing effect). -BZs reduce any increased serotonin activity (normal levels fine) by slowing the overall CNS - this produces a calming effect as less serotonin is fired. -This is why BZs are used to lower anxiety associated with OCD. Brain very complicated as low serotonin also implicated in anxiety (*but that’s to do with serotonin being reuptaken, this is to do with BZs and serotonin’s wider effect on the brain). Overall - GABA + BZs = reduced neural activity + less serotonin = calmer = less stressed.

Answer 91

-Because BZs act directly on the brain, they work very quickly. -This means be used to treat someone in shock - e.g someone who simply cannot cope in the immediate aftermath of a bereavement.

Answer 92

Kahn et Al (1986) - 250 patients over 8 weeks - found that BZs were superior to a placebo. Hildago et Al (2001) - a meta-analysis of students being treated for social anxiety - found that BZs were more effective at reducing anxiety than anti-depressants.

Answer 93

Beta-adrenergenic blockers (BBs) are drugs that reduce the activity of adrenaline and noradrenaline. -E.g Atenolol (Tenormin - brand name). -Do not act directly on the brain itself. -They instead act on the sympathetic nervous system, reducing the arousal of the fight or flight response of the SAM axis. -Reduce the physiological symptoms of stress - lowering the heart rate and blood pressure.

Answer 94

-Stress causes sympathetic arousal of the nervous system. -The fight or flight response produces the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, which leads to increased blood pressure and heart rate. BBs: -BBs attach to beta-adrenergic receptors - the receptor cells of the heart and blood vessels - which are stimulated during sympathetic arousal (fight or flight). -BBs block beta-adrenergenic receptors, preventing them from being stimulated by adrenaline or noradrenaline. -Therefore, heart rate and blood pressure do not increase when there is an immediate stressor. -Heart pumps at normal rate. The individual will not feel anxious (so indirectly tackles psychological symptoms as well).

Answer 95

Sports people and musicians where precision is important. E.g snooker, golf, orchestra members -Also surgeons. -BBs don’t affect the brain so ideal for people who want to reduce anxiety but also remain alert - BZs relax you.

Answer 96

Lockwood (1989) - over 2000 musicians in major US symphony orchestras studied - found that 27% reported taking BBs and that they felt better about their performance.

Answer 97

Strengths: -Drugs are effective in treating anxiety. -Research support - Kahn et Al (1986) - found that BZs were superior to a placebo, Hidalgo et Al (2001) - found BZs to be better than antidepressants. Lockwood (1989) - found BBs useful in real-life situations where accuracy is important - musicians’ performance. -Drugs easy to use - require little effort compared to therapy. -BBs can be combined with therapy to provide a longer term solution. -BBs prevent the onset of immunosuppression and cardiovascular disorders - e.g CHD. Weaknesses: -Both drugs only treat the symptoms of the stress, not the underlying cause/source. -Psychological therapies could be better at helping with the source of the stress. -BBs take longer to work. Side effects: -BZs highly addictive and can result in dependency and withdrawal symptoms - should only be taken as a low dose for a short period - used for sudden shock. -BZs can cause aggressiveness, cognitive impairment, drowsiness, weight gain and respiration problems. -BBs implicated in diabetes, a dangerously low heart rate, low blood pressure and severe depression.

Answer 98

A psychological method of stress management which tries to change the way a person thinks about stress. -Inoculation = immunising - all about identifying potential problems in advance and planning how to cope with them. -As a form of CBT, the aim of SIT is to challenge and change cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, expectations), so that behaviour can also be changed.

Answer 99

CBT a more holistic way of treating stress as it looks at the whole person - looks at other factors (family, personal life, job) as well as the physiological factors such as the effects of fight or flight. -Helpful for long-term support by helping change the way a person deals with a stressful situation. -Drug treatment is a reductionist approach to treatment - it reduces the target of treatment down to one particular factor - only treats the symptoms. -Drugs focus on the person’s biology and break it down into its constituent parts (chemicals and neurotransmitters) - e.g BZs only deal with GABA and serotonin, BBs only deal with adrenaline. -If you treat the symptoms with drugs, the cause of the stress is not addressed - short-term solution.

Answer 100

Meichenbaum said that there are 2 types of thinking: -Positive thinking - leads to positive feelings and outcomes (reduces the stress response) - e.g ‘I am appreciated’ reduces stress. -Negative thinking - leads to negative feelings and outcomes - (increases stress) - e.g thinking ‘everybody hates me’ may lead to anxiety and depression. -Meichenbaum said that whilst we can’t change or have control over stressful situations, we can turn negative thoughts into positive thoughts to reduce stress and anxiety.

Answer 101

Stressed thinking: -Perception of a situation as a threat or stimulus <—> Belief that coping resources are not adequate <—> Use of coping strategies that are ineffective. -It results in learned helplessness where the person gives up before they even begin - this then becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. -The central element is that the patterns are rooted entirely in perceptions which do not reflect reality - therefore it is possible to change these patterns by increasing feelings of control. -Feelings of control can be increased by using more effective coping behaviour - e.g planning, time-management, social support.

Answer 102

1) Conceptualisation 2) Skills acquisition and rehearsal 3) Real-life application -The phases are not completely distinct as they may overlap - there may also be some working back to an earlier phase before moving on. -Duration of SIT varies client to client - usually 9-12 sessions of 60-90 minutes.

Answer 103

Conceptualisation: -Client meets with the therapist and they working together to identify the sources of stress. -The focus is on the client’s cognitive appraisal of stressors - the client needs to understand that stressors can be overcome by viewing/perceiving them as challenges. If there are any instances of clear negatively-biased thinking, the therapist will challenge the client’s views. -There should be warm and collaborative rapport, but it is ultimately the client who is the expert on their own stress experiences. -E.g a client believes they are not going to get a job, so they start getting stressed and reaffirm that they cannot get the job - as a result, they perform poorly in the interview and do not get the job. The therapist needs to make the client understand that this thinking process is a cause of the stress and can be overcome.

Answer 104

Skills acquisition and rehearsal: -Client learns the specific skills they need to cope with stress and they practice them with the therapist. -These skills are tailored to their needs - e.g relaxation, diaphragmatic breathing, positive thinking, social skills, methods of diversion, time management and social support. -The client plans in advance how to use the skills when stress occurs. -E.g - planning for the job interview. -Or if the client has social anxiety, their therapist might give them some things to say in conversation that are both appropriate to use and within the client’s comfort zone (greetings, hobbies, interests etc…)

Answer 105

Application phase: -Client will try out their newly acquired skills in the real world and apply them to different and increasing stressful situations. -Could be set as homework where the client has to deliberately seek out stressful situations. -They will consider whether these new skills worked - the therapist will continue to monitor the success or failure of the therapy. -Relapse prevention is achieved by the therapist helping prepare the client to cope with setbacks. E.g - the person will put the job interview techniques they have learned into practice at their next interview. -Or, a person with social anxiety will speak to a shop assistant, or join a social club.

Answer 106

Sheehy and Horan (2004) - examined the effects of SIT on the anxiety, stress and academic performance of 1st-year law students. -Students had 4x 90 minute sessions a week of SIT. -Found that all participants who had received the 4 weekly sessions of SIT reported lower levels of anxiety and stress. -Their academic also performance improved - shows that their responses were not socially desirable and that SIT does truly work.

Answer 107

Meichenbaum (1977, 1985) - investigated the effect of stress-inoculation therapy compared to standard desensitisation. -21 students (aged 17-25) responded to an advert about testing treatment for anxiety. -Put into 3 groups - SIT, systematic desensitisation, and the control group. -Anxiety tested using a questionnaire. -The SIT group given 8 therapy sessions - trained to restructure their thinking as well as relaxation techniques. -The systematic desensitisation group only given relaxation techniques. -Control told they were on a waiting list. Findings: -Performance in exams in the SIT group improved the most, although both therapy groups showed some improvement. -Shows SIT is an effective way of reducing anxiety - more effective than just stand-alone behavioural techniques.

Answer 108

Strengths: -Addresses the perception and causes of stress. -Holistic approach - treats causes and symptoms - can’t remove stressors but teaches a person how to deal with them. -Provides a long-term solution as it gives the client the toolkit to deal/cope with future stressful situations. -SIT should benefit all aspects of life. -Person is in control of their own destiny - drugs can make a person feel out of control. Weaknesses: -Highly demanding of clients. Client need to be motivated and committed for SIT to be appropriate and effective. -Drugs work faster and there is no guarantee of therapy working - quick fix vs slow fix. -SIT and therapy in general is expensive - not accessible to everyone. -Although the is very much on the client, it is also reliant on the therapist delivering SIT effectively. -A client’s relationship with their therapist could determine the outcome of SIT. -SIT may require an anti-anxiety prescription anyway.

Answer 109

A method of stress management that turns physiological processes (e.g heart rate) into signals that a client can learn to control. -The aim is to give people control over involuntary physiological processes associated with stress. *Likely to come up

Answer 110

Because the technology gives us the feedback (visual or auditory) we need to attempt to control these physiological processes. E.g heart rate, breathing rate, muscular tension can all be monitored by machines to give us feedback.

Answer 111

Neal Miller (1961) suggested that responses from the autonomic nervous system (ANS), although involuntary, can be voluntarily controlled in the form of awareness. -This led to the creation of biofeedback.

Answer 112

Operant conditioning - biofeedback is about conditioning involuntary responses through the interplay of physiology and psychology. The feedback and the relaxation itself are rewards (positive consequences) that increase the likelihood of further success - positive reinforcement. -Physical information is recorded - e.g heart rate, blood pressure. -Psychological techniques deployed to control - e.g relaxation techniques. -Seeing heart rate go down is rewarding, and so is the relaxation itself.

Answer 113

-An individual is connected to a machine which converts physiological activity into visual or auditory signals. -The signal is fed back to the client via a monitor display or the sound of a tone through earphones What it measures: -Muscular tension can be measured using an electromyogram (EMG) - electrical activity of the muscles converted into a tone of varying pitch. -Brain activity can be measured by an electroencephalogram (EEG) - electrodes placed onto the scalp using a skull cap - these electrodes pick up the electrical signals from the brain. -Heart rate monitors are widely available, even on mobile apps or in new technology like smart watches.

Answer 114

Before you can get attached to a machine (EMG, EEG, heart rate monitor etc), you need to be trained. 1) Awareness of feedback 2) Learning control (relaxation techniques) 3) Transferring skills to the real world

Answer 115

Awareness: -An educational phase where a person learns how to recognise symptoms of stress. -They are taught how these symptoms feel, and how they look/sound on a machine. -E.g they learn that an increased heart rate moves the line of a graph on the screen.

Answer 116

Learning control: -A person learns how to regulate and control the symptoms of stress. -Taught relaxation techniques (e.g deep breathing, tightening and relaxing specific muscle groups) which reduce the activity of the sympathetic branch and increase the activity of the parasympathetic branch (PAS/HPA). -Adrenaline and noradrenaline production stops and heart rate, blood pressure and other symptoms associated with stress are reduced. -Operant conditioning - relaxation acts like a reward and encourages the person to repeat these techniques involuntarily.

Answer 117

Transfer: -Successful relaxation techniques are transferred to everyday situations. -The goal at the end is to use the techniques in stressful situations without a machine. -Over time, the client may even be able to do it involuntarily.

Answer 118

Lemaire et Al (2011) - trained doctors to use a biofeedback device on themselves. -Found that over a 28-day period, doctors reported reduced stress levels through a self-report questionnaire - supports the effectiveness of biofeedback. -However, regular measurements of heart rate and blood pressure were taken and there were no significant changes between the start and end of the study - suggests a possible placebo effect - only changed thinking.

Answer 119

Budzynski et Al (1973) - studied the effectiveness of biofeedback as a way of treating tension headaches. -18 participants evenly split into 3 groups: -Group A - had biofeedback sessions. -Group B - just taught relaxation techniques (no feedback/awareness/application). -Group C - control group - received no intervention. -Group A reported a significant decrease in headaches - shows biofeedback can be effective.

Answer 120

Strengths: -Combines physiological responses as signals with psychological coping techniques. -Unlike SIT, you can see what’s physically happening during stress. -Uses a reward system - operant conditioning. -Long-term treatment - you shouldn’t need to return to therapy as biofeedback gives you the tools to cope without the machine. -Can be used regardless of age - unlike drugs and SIT, biofeedback is suitable for children - a game-based interface used. -Useful for professions where adrenaline is needed, but not too much - need to hold your nerve - sportsman, surgeons etc… -Recent devices / new technology makes biofeedback more accessible and enjoyable. -Gives you the ability to control responses to situations you can’t control. SIT can’t take away the divorce or the bereavement. -No side-effects. -Implications for the economy - people can cope with stress, go back to work and pay taxes. Weaknesses: -Still doesn’t directly treat the cause - the cause may not be known - only increases responsiveness to symptoms. -Time-consuming - need to be committed as biofeedback therapy is challenging. -Implications for the economy - cost of specialist equipment and maintenance - but therapists are paid and pay taxes.

Answer 121

Gender differences - the ways in which men and women differ in responding to and coping with stress - behaviourally and psychologically. Taylor et Al (2000) - both men and women go through the same physical stress response (fight or flight), but the way in which men and women physically respond to stress is different. As a consequence of our evolutionary history: -Men respond to a stressor through aggression or denial. Males were the hunters and had to confront or flee predators - ‘fight or flight’. -Women respond to a stressor by tending (protecting, calming and nurturing offspring) and befriending (seeking support from social networks at times of stress) - ‘tend and befriend’ - driven by oxytocin. -From an evolutionary prospective, women had to not only protect their offspring, but be able produce offspring. Women’s reproductive resources more precious than men. -Responding to stress in a ‘fight or flight’ way would put their offspring at risk.

Answer 122

Oxytocin is described as the love/friendship hormone. -It promotes feelings of goodwill, warmth and affiliation towards others - encourages bonding behaviour. -It helps the body recover more quickly from the physiological effects of a stressor - helps speed up the recovery of the HPA system. -Also linked to lowering cortisol. Differences: -Oxytocin is produced in both sexes. -However, the female hormone oestrogen increases oxytocin, whereas in men, testosterone has a dampening effect on oxytocin levels - thus oxytocin’s effects are stronger in women (feel them more acutely). -This means that women are better protected from stress. -Also, because oxytocin drives the ‘tend and befriend’ response, they are more likely to seek social support to help them cope with stress. -In contrast, as men feel the effects of oxytocin less, they are less likely to seek social support - ‘tend and befriend’ - and will become more aggressive. -This is a biollogically determinist explanation for gender differences in coping with stress - also links to evolutionary - men and women different because of biology.

Answer 123

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) - suggested that there was a problem-focused and an emotion-focused coping response to stress. 1) Problem-focused - coping involves directly targeting the root cause of the stress in a practical way - see it as a problem to be solved. -Includes taking control, learning new skills and being rational. 2) Emotion-focused - coping involves indirectly reducing stress by tackling the anxiety associated with a stressor - includes avoidance, distraction techniques, keeping busy and trying to think about the stressor in a positive way.

Answer 124

Although men and women use both, men more likely to use problem-focused and women emotion-focused. -Gender-related coping methods are environmentally determinist - gendered behaviour is a social construct so may be as a result of expectations placed on men and women by society. -E.g Women taught to express their emotions more (through socialisation). Men encouraged to think logically and plan. Peterson et Al (2006) - assessed the coping strategies of infertile (to focus on the environmental impact on gender, not the biology) men and women. -Men were more likely to plan and problem solve (problem-focused), women were more likely to use avoidance tactics (emotion-focused).

Answer 125

Strengths: -Biology plays a role in how men and women may respond to stress. -Tend and befriend supported by Luckow et Al (1998) - women more likely to seek social support. -Coping methods supports the idea of environmental determinism - the environment (social roles) determines behaviour rather than biology. -Gender socialisation has led to women engaging in fewer unhealthy behaviours, as they are better prepared to cope with stress. -Women less likely to drink or smoke. E.g Vogele (1997) - suggested gender stereotypes cause men to be less open about their feelings. Instead, they use harmful methods (smoking and drinking). Weaknesses: -Lacks temporal validity - make generalisations based on past attitudes towards men and women. -Gender differences based on perceived roles of men and women in society. -Gender differences may be due to the fact that men and women face different types of stressors, rather than a fundamental difference in the way men and women cope with stress. -Men have traditionally worked more - a problem-focused coping method is perhaps more appropriate for problems at work. Women have traditionally stayed in the home - an emotion-focused coping method more appropriate for relationships with family members. -Distinction between problem-focused and emotion-focused is not clear - many coping methods can’t easily be categorised in this way. -Men more likely to drink and smoke to excess.

Answer 126

Any assistance given to a person by others - friends, family. -Can help people cope with stress or a stressful situation.

Answer 127

Both sexes use social support - e.g men may seek practical advice from others. -But, women are more likely to respond to stress by ‘tending and befriending’ others - driven by oxytocin (which women feel the full effects of).

Answer 128

Schaefer et Al (1981): 1) Instrumental support - links to problem-focused method. 2) Emotional support - links to emotion-focused method. 3) Esteem support -Unlike Lazarus and Folkman’s problem-focused and emotion-focused methods, social support is provided by others, not the individual themselves.

Answer 129

Instrumental support - giving practical and tangible support in the form of physically doing something to help, or providing information/advice. -Relates to a problem-focused coping method - except practical assistance for solving the problem is provided by others. -54% men use, 20% of women use. E.g giving someone a lift to hospital, lending money (if finances are source of stress), telling someone what you know about stress.

Answer 130

Emotional support - expressing empathy, warmth, concern and affection for the person to lift their mood. -Relates to an emotion-focused coping method - except emotional support provided by others in the form of being a shoulder to cry on. -23% men use, 48% of women use. E.g ‘I am really sorry for what you’re going through’.

Answer 131

Esteem support - trying to raise the person’s confidence and self-esteem in order to restore their faith that they can tackle the stressful situation. -Linked to cognitive appraisal - how a person sees themselves - but it is the role of the supporter to give them the confidence. E.g ‘I know you can get through this’ - maybe point to examples of past successes in challenging situations.

Answer 132

-The three different types will often overlap. -Even instrumental support can help emotionally because it is a sign of caring. E.g proving a ‘shoulder to cry on’ could conceivably involve all three types of social support.

Answer 133

Cohen et Al (2015) - investigated whether hugs could protect against stress-related illness (common cold). -404 healthy adult participants were contacted by phone every evening for 14 days to measure the number of hugs they received each day. -Also completed a questionnaire to test perceived social support. -Stress measured in terms of daily arguments. -Participants then exposed to a common cold virus and monitored them for signs of illness (stress an immunosuppressant). Findings: -Participants who experienced more arguments (greater stress) were more likely to get ill. However, those who reported more social support in the questionnaire, had a reduced risk of illness. -Participants who received hugs more frequently were less likely to get ill, and those who did get ill had less severe symptoms if they received more hugs. -Suggests that social support acts as a protector against the effects of stress.

Answer 134

Fawzy Fawzy (1993) - cancer patients who were randomly allocated to a support group for 6 weeks (1 session a week) - the group provided emotional support, as well as instrumental support. -6 years later, these patients had better NK cell functioning and were more likely to to be free from cancer than the control group. -This supports that social support helps to reduce the long-term effects of stress and illness.

Answer 135

Strengths: -Can be provided without physical presence - e.g through social networks, talking on the phone, being sent gifts/money. -Luckow et Al (1998) - women more likely to seek social support than men, especially emotional support. Although men did use instrumental support more than women. Weaknesses: -The type of social support very much depends on the context/circumstances, rather than gender. -Alpha bias - any potential differences between men and women are maximised/exaggerated. -23% of males and 32% of females use both instrumental and emotional social support (esteem less common). -Cultural differences - role of social support varies in different cultures. -Social support needs to come from the right person - e.g instrumental support for a medical problem needs to be reliable to be useful, or brining someone along to a hospital appointment might create greater anxiety.

Answer 136

-There are gender differences in how men and women respond to stress. -Some can be explained biologically and through evolution. -Some can be explained through social roles. -Some men and women prefer certain types of coping mechanisms and social support, but some use both. -Very much depends on environment and the type of stressor - e.g female at work will need practical support, men will need emotional support with family issues.

Stress Flashcards

(160 cards)