Forensic Psychology (P3)

Question 1

Define the term offender profiling

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 1

A behavioral and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown offenders

Question 2

Define the term top-down approach

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 2

Profilers start with a pre-establisge typology and work down to lower levels in order to assign offenders to one of two categories based on witness accounts and crime scene evidence

Question 3

Define the term organised offender

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 3

An offender who shows evidence of planning, target a specific victim and tends to be socially and sexually competent with higher than average intelligence

Question 4

Define the term disorganised offender

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 4

An offender who shows little evidence of planning, leaving clues and tends to be socially and sexually incompetent with lower than average intelligence

Question 5

What are characteristics of organised offender?

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 5

• Deliberately targets victim. Has a type
• High degree of conrol. Operate with detached surgical precision
• Above average intellegicence
• Skilled, professional occupation
• Socially and sexually competent (may be married)

Question 6

What are characteristics of a disorganised offender?

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 6

• Impulsive
• Lower than average IQ
• Unskilled work/unemployed
• History of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships
• LIve alone
• Live relatively close to crime scene

Question 7

How to construct an FBI profile?

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 7

1. Data assimilation - profiler reviews the evidence (crime scene photographs, pathology reports, witness reports etc)
2. Crime scene classification - disorganised or organised
3. Crime reconstruction - Hypothesis in terms of sequence of events, behaviour of the victim etc
4. Profile generation - Hypotheses related to the likely offender e.g. physical characteristics, behavioure etc

Question 8

What are strengths?

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 8

1. Research support
2. Wider application

1.** David Canter et al (2004)**. Conducted an analysis of 100 US commited by different serial killers. Technique called smallest space analysis was used (a statistical technique that identifies correlations across different samples of behaviour). Analysis used to assess the co-occurence of 39 aspects of serial killings including cause of death, murder weapon etc. Found that there seems to be a subset of features of many serial killings which mached the FBIs typologu for organised offenders. Validity.
COUNTERPOINT: Godwin (2002) it’s difficult to classify killers as one or the other type. A killer may have multiple contasting characteristics such as high intellegince and sexual competence but commits spontaneous murders leaving the body. Suggests organised-disorganised typology is a continuum.

2. Tina Meketa (2017) reports that top-down profiling has been applied to burgalry resulting in a 85% rise in solved cased in US. Adds 2 new categories interpersonal (offender usuallly knows their victims and steals something of significance) and oppurtunistic (generally inexperienced young offender). Wider application than was originally assumed

Question 9

What are limitations?

Offender profiling: The top-down approach

Answer 9

1. Flawed evidence
2. Conflicting research

1. Top-down profiling developed using interviews with 36 murders in the US 25 of which were serial killers, other 11 single or double muderers. At the end of the process 24 of these indivudals were classified as organised offenders and 12 were disorganised. Canter et al argued that the sample was poor (not a random or large sample didn’t include different kinds of offenders). There was no standard set of questions so each interview was different and therefore not really comparable. Does not have a scientific basis
2. Godwin (2002) it’s difficult to classify killers as one or the other type. A killer may have multiple contasting characteristics such as high intellegince and sexual competence but commits spontaneous murders leaving the body. Suggests organised-disorganised typology is a continuum.

Question 10

Define the term bottom-up approach

Offender profiling: The bottom-up approach

Answer 10

Profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics, motivations and social background of the offender

Question 11

Define the term investigative psychology

Offender profiling: The bottom-up approach

Answer 11

A form of bottom-up profiling that matches details from the crime scene with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patterns based on psychological theory

Aims to establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occur or coexist across crime scenes

Question 12

Investigative psychology

What is meant by interpersonal coherence?

Offender profiling: The bottom-up approach

Answer 12

The way an offender behaves at the scene including how they interact with victim, may reflect their behaviour in everyday situations

Question 13

investigative psychology

What is meant by forensic awareness?

Offender profiling: The bottom-up approach

Answer 13

Describes individuals who have been the subject of police interagation before their behaviour may denote how mindful they are of ‘covering their tracks’

Question 14

Define the term Geographical profiling

Offender profiling: The bottom-up approach

Answer 14

A form of bottom-up approach profiling basd on the principle of spatial constitency - that an offender’s operational base and possible future offences are revealed by the geographical location of their previous crimes

Question 15

Canter’s circle theory

Offender profiling: The bottom-up apprach

Answer 15

• Serial offenders will restrict their ‘work’ to geographical areas they’re familar with and so understaing spatial pattern of behaviour provides a centre of gravity which is likely to include the offender’s base (often in middle of spatial pattern)
• Distribution of offences leads to 2 descriptions
  1. The Marauder - operates in close proximity to their home bade
  2. The Commuter - who is likely to have travel a distanced from their usual residence

Question 16

Geographical profiling

What does spatial decision-making offer insight into?

Offender profiling: The bottom-up apprach

Answer 16

• Nature of offence
• Whether it was planned or oppurtunistic
• Mental maps
• Modes of transport
• Employment status
• Approximate age

Question 17

What are limitations?

Offender profiling: The bottom-up apprach

Answer 17

Geographical information insufficient

May not be sufficient on its own. The success of geographical profiling may be reliant on the quality of data that the police can provide. Recording of crime isn’t always accurate, can vary between police forces and an estimated 75% of crimes aren’t reported. Questions utility of the approach which relies on accuracy of geographical data. Even if this information is correct critics claim that other factors are just as important in creating a profile such as the timing of the offence and the age and experiene of the offender (Ainsworth 2001). Geographical information alone may not always lead to the successful capture of an offender

Question 18

What are strengths?

Offender profiling: The bottom-up approach

Answer 18

1. Research support - investigative psychology
2. Research support - geographical profiling

1. Canter and Heritage (1990)
   Conducted an analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. Data was examined using smallest space analysis. Several behaviours were identified as common in different samples of behaviour such as the use of interpersonal language and lack of reaction to the victim. Each individual displayed a characteristic pattern of such behaviours and this can help with case linkage (whether 2 or more offences were committed by the same person). This supports one of the basic princples of the bottom-up approach that people are consistent in their behaviour
   COUNTERPOINT: Case linkage depends on the database and this will only consist of historical crimes that have been solved. They may be solved because it was relatively straightfoward to link these crimes together which makes this a circular argument. Investigative psychology may tell us little about crimes that have few links between them and therefore remained unstudied

2. Lundrigan and Canter (2001)
Collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers from the US. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of the killers. The location of each body disposal site created a centre of gravity because when an offender starts from their home base they may go in a different direction each time they dump a body but in the end all these sites create a circular effect around the home base. Effect more noticable in marauders. Supports the view that geographical information can be used to identify an offender

Question 19

How did Lombroso refer to criminals?

Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 19

Genetic throwbacks
(a primitive subspecies who were biologically different from non-criminals)

Suggested this in his book roughly translated as ‘the criminal man’

Question 20

What were the biological suggestions?

Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 20

• Lack of evolutionary development, savage nature meants the wouldn’t be able to adjust to the demands of society
• Offending behaviour was innate thus offender isn’t responsible

Question 21

What was meant by atavistic form?

Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 21

Offender subtype could be identified through physiological markers that were linked to particular offences

These are biologically determined atavistic characteristics (appearance)

Question 22

Give examples of atavistic characteristics

Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 22

• Narrow sloping brow
• Strong prominent jaw
• High cheekbones
• Facial asymmetry
• Dark skin
• Extra toes/fingers/nipples
• Insensitivity to pain
• Use of slang
• Tattoos
• Unemployment

Question 23

Description of murderers

Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 23

• Bloodshot eyes
• Curly hair
• Long ears

Question 24

Description of sexual deviants

Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 24

• Glinting eyes
• Swollen fleshy lips
• Projecting ears

Question 25

Description of frauders | Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 25

* Thin reedy lips

Question 26

Describe Lombroso's research | Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 26

* examined facial and cranial features of Italian convicts * Examined skulls of 383 dead convicts and 3839 living convicts * 40% of criminal acts are committed by people with atavistic characteristics

Question 27

What are strengths? | Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 27

Lombroso's legacy ## Footnote * Changed the face of the study of crime * Father of modern criminology * Lombroso coined the term criminology * Shifted the emphasis from a moralist discourse (offenders judged as weak-minded) to a scientific position (evolutionary influences and genetics were to blame) * Beginning of offender profiling (specific characteristics to particular types of offenders) * Major contribution to criminology as a science COUNTERPOINT: **DeLisi (2012)** * Racist undertones of Lombroso's work * Many features identified by Lombroso are most likely to be found among people of African descent * Fit eugenic attitudes of the time (temporal validity) * Theory = subjective, influenced by racial prejudices

Question 28

What are limitations? | Biological explanations: An historical approach

Answer 28

1. Contradictory evidence 2. Poor control ## Footnote 1. **Goring (1913)** * Conducted a comparison between 3000 offenders and 3000 non-offenders * Concluded there was no evidence that offenders are a distinct group with unusual facial and cranial characteristics * Challenges idea offender can be physcially distinguished from the rest of the population and are therefore unlikely to be a subspecies 2. * Failed to control important variables * Did not compare offender sample to a control group (of non-offenders) * Could have controlled for various confounding variables * Research demonsrrated links between crime and social conditions (poverty, poor education) (Hay and Forrest 2009) could explain unemployment with offenders * Lombroso's research does not meet scientific standards

Question 29

Twin study | Biological explanations: Genetic

Answer 29

Christiansen (1977) ## Footnote * Over 3500 Twin pairs in Denmark born between 1880 and 1910 * Offending behaviour checked against Danish police records * Found concordance rates for offender behaviour of 35% for monozygotic twin (identical) males * 13% for non-identical twin (dizygotic) males * Slightly lower rates for females * Data indcates underlying predisposing traitss may also be inherited

Question 30

Adoption study | Biological explanations: Genetic

Answer 30

Crowe (1972) ## Footnote * Found adopted children whse biological mother had a criminal record had a 50% risk of having a criminal record by 18 years old * Children whose biological mother didn't have a criminal record had a 5% risk

Question 31

Candidate genes | Biological explanations: Genetic

Answer 31

Tiuhonen et al (2015) ## Footnote * Genetic analysis of almost 800 Finnish offenders * 2 genes (MAOA and CDH13) may be associated with violent crime * About 5-10% of all severe violent crime in Finland is attributable to the MAOA and CDH13 genotypes

Question 32

MAOA gene | Biological explanations: Genetic

Answer 32

* Regulates serotinin in the brain * Linked to aggressive behaviour

Question 33

CDH13 gene | Biological explanations: Genetic

Answer 33

* Linked to substance abuse * Linked to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Question 34

Diathesis-stress model | Biological explanations: Genetic

Answer 34

* Genetic influences on offending at least partly moderated by effects of the environment * Tendency towards offending behaviour may occur through the combination of genetic predispositon and biological/psychological trigger (e.g. criminal role models, dysfunctional environment)

Question 35

What are limitations? | Biological explanations: Genetic

Answer 35

Issues with twin evidence ## Footnote * Assumption of equal environments * Assumed by researchers that environmental factors are constant because twins are brought up together thus must experience similar environments * Shared environment assumption may apply more to MZ twins because MZ twins look identical and people (parents) tend to treat them more similarly which affects their behaviour * Higher concordance raes for MZ twins may be because they are treated more similarly than DZ twins

Question 36

What are strengths? | Biological explanations: Genetic

Answer 36

Mednick et al (1984) ## Footnote * 13,000 Danish adoptees * When the biological and adoptive parents had no convictions the percentage of adopttes that did was 13.5% * 20% when either of the biological parents had convictions * 24.5% when adoptive and biolgical parents had convictions * Genetic inheritance and environmental influences play an important role in offending supporting the diathesis-stress model of crime

Question 37

Define the term neural explanations | Biological explanations: Neural

Answer 37

Any explanation of behaviour (and its disorders) in terms of (dys)functions of the brain and nervous system. ## Footnote Includes the activity of brain structures e.g. the prefrontal cortex and neurtransmitters e.g. serotonin and dopamine

Question 38

Prefrontal cortex | Biological explanations: Neural

Answer 38

Raine ## Footnote * Condcuted many studies of the antisocial personalist disorder (APD) braom * Several dozen brain-imaginging studies demonstrating that individuals with antisocial personalisties have reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex (part of the brain that regulates emotional behaviour) * 11% reduction in the volume of grey matter in prefrontal cortex of people with APD compared to controls

Question 39

Mirror neurons | Biological explanations: Neural

Answer 39

Keysers (2011) ## Footnote * Research suggests offenders with APD can experience apathy but do so more sporadically * Found only when offenders were asked to emphasise (with a person in pain shown on film) did their empathy reaction (controlled by mirror neurons in brain) activate * Suggests APD individuals aren't totally without empathy but may have a neural switch that can be turned on and off unlike the typical brain which has empathy switch permanently on

Question 40

What are strengths? | Biological explanations: Neural

Answer 40

Brain evidence ## Footnote **Kandel and Freed (1989)** * Reviewed evidence of frontal lobe damage (including prefrontal cortex) and antisocial behaviour * Those with such damage show impulsive behaviour, emotional instability and an ability to learn from their mistakes * Frontal lobe associated with planning behaviour * Supports idea brain damage may be a casual factor in offending behaviour

Question 41

What are limitations? | Biological explanations: Neural

Answer 41

Intervening variables ## Footnote * Link between neural differences and APD may be complex Farrington et al (2006) * Group of adult males who scored high on psychopathy APD * Individuals had experienced vaious risk factors during childhood (e.g. raised by convict parent) Rauch et al (2006) * Could be that these early childhood experiences caused by APD and also some neural differences associated - such as reduced activity in frontal lobe due to trauma * Relationship between neural differences APD and offending is comples and there may be other intervening variables that have an impact

Question 42

Personality theory | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 42

* Behaviour could be represented along 2 dimensions. intorversion-extraversion (E) and neuroticism-stability (N) * 2 dimensions combine to form a variety of personality characteristics or traits * Later added a 3rd dimension. psychoticism-sociability (P)

Question 43

Biological basis | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 43

* Our personality traits are biological in origin and come about through the type of nervous system we inherit * Thus all personality types have an innate biological basis

Question 44

# Biological basis Extraverts | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 44

* Have an underactive nervous system * Always seek exciement, stimulation * Likely to engage in risk-taking behaviours * Tend not to condition easily * Don't learn from their mistakes

Question 45

# Biological basis Neurotic | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 45

* High level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system * Respond quickly to situations of threat (fight or flight) * Tend to be nervous, jumpy and overanxious * General instability means their behaviour is often difficult to predict

Question 46

# Biological basis Psychotic | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 46

* Higher levels of testosterone * Unemotional * Prone to aggression

Question 47

What is the criminal personality? | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 47

Neurotic-extravert-psychotic ## Footnote An individual who scores highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism and cannot easily be condition, is cold and unfeeling and likely to engage in offending behavior

Question 48

The role of socialisation | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 48

* Children are taught to become able to delay gratification and more socially orientated * People with high E and N scores had nervous systems that made it difficult to condition * Thus they're less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses and consequently would be more likely to act antisocially where the oppurtunity was presented ## Footnote * Eysneck saw offending behaviour as developmentally immature and concerned with immediate gratification

Question 49

Measuring the criminal personality | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 49

* Eysneck's Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) * A psychological test that locates respondents along the E, N, and P dimensions to determine their personality type ## Footnote * Measurement of personality important because it enabled him to conduct research relating personalit variables to other behavious (criminality)

Question 50

What are strengths? | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 50

Research support **Eysneck and Eysneck (1977)** ## Footnote * Compared 2070 male prisoners' scores on the Eysneck Personality Questionnaire with 2422 male controls * On measures of extraversion, neuroticism, abd psychoticism prisoners recirded higher average scores than controls * Agrees with prediction that offenders rate higher than average across the 3 dimensions COUNTERPOINT: Farrington et al (1982) * Conducted a meta-analysis of relavant studies * Reported offenders tended to score high on psychoticism but not extraversion and neuroticism * Consistent evidence of differences on EEG measure (used to measure cortical arousal) between extraverts and introverts **(Kussner 2017)** * Challnges central assumptions of criminal personality

Question 51

What are limitations? | Psychological explanations: Eysenck's theory

Answer 51

1. Too simplistic 2. Cultural factors ## Footnote **1. Moffitt (1993)** * Drew a distinction between offending behaviour that is adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent * Personality traits alone were a poor predictor of how long offending behaviour would continue * Persistence in offending behaviour is the result of reciprocal process between individual personality traits and environmental reactions to those traits * More complex than Eysneck suggested, that course of offending behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and environment **2. Bartol and Holanhock (1979)** * Studied Hispanic and African-American offendersin maximum security prison, New York * Divided these offenders into 6 groups based on offending history and nature of their offences * Found all 6 groups were less extravert than a non-offender control group (Eysneck would expect them to be extravert) * This was because the sample was a very different cultural group from Eysneck's * Question generalisability of Eysneck's theory and it may be a culturally relative concept

Question 52

# Level of moral reasoning Moral development | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 52

Kohlberg (1968) * People's decisions and judgements on issues of right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory of moral reasoning * The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning * Based his theory on people's responses to a series of moral dilemmas (e.g. Heinz dilemma) Kohlberg et al (1973) * Using his moral dilemmas found that a group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non-violent youths * Even after controlling for social background * Suggests offenders tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning

Question 53

# Level of moral reasoning Level 1 | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 53

Pre-conventional morality ## Footnote Stage 1 - Punishment oreintattion. Rules are obeyed to avoid punishment Stage 2 - Instrumental orientation on personal gain. Rules are obeyed for personal gain

Question 54

# Level of moral reasoning Level 2 | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 54

Conventional morality ## Footnote Stage 3 - Rules are obeyed for approvval Stage 4 - Rules are obeyed to maintain social order

Question 55

# Level of moral reasoning Level 3 | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 55

Post-conventional morality ## Footnote Stage 5 - Morality of contract and individual rights. Rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others Stage 6 - Morality of conscience. Individuals have a personal set of ethical principles

Question 56

Level of moral reasoning link with criminality | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 56

* Offenders more likely to be classified at pre-conventional level of Kohlberg's model (Stages 1 and 2) * Non-offenders at conventional level+ * Pre-conventional level characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards (associated with less mature, child-like reasoning) * Thus those at this level may commit crime if they can go undected/gain rewards * Individuals who reason at higher levels sympathise more with rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours (honesty, genorisity)

Question 57

Define the term cognitive distortions | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 57

Faulty, biased, and irrational ways of thinking that means we perceive ourselves, other people and the word inaccurately and usually negatively ## Footnote Examples: * Hostile attribution bias * Minimalisation

Question 58

Define the term hostile attribution bias | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 58

The tendenccy to judge ambigous situations or the actions of others as aggressive and/or threatening when in reality they may not be

Question 59

Hostile attribution bias research | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 59

Schonenberg and Jusyte (2014) * Presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambigious facial expressions * When compared with a non-aggressive matched control group the violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry/hostile ## Footnote Dodge and Frame (1982) * Showed children a video clip of an ambigious provacation (intention neither clearly hositle or accidental) * Children who had been identified as aggressive/rejected prior to study interpreted the situation as more than those classed non-aggressive/accepted

Question 60

Define the term minimalisation | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 60

A type of deception that involves downplaying the significance of an even or emotion ## Footnote * Common strategy when dealing with feelings of guilt * Also referred to as the application of a euphemistic label

Question 61

Minimalisation research | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 61

**Barbaree (1991)** * Among 26 incarcerated rapists 54% denied they had committed an offence at all * 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim

Question 62

# Level of moral reasoning What are strengths? | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 62

Research support ## Footnote **Palmer and Hollin (1998)** * Compared moral reasoning in 332 male and female non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders * Used the Social Moral Reflection Measure Short Form (SRM-SF) which contains11 moral dilemma-related questions * Offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offender grou * Consistent with Kohlberg's predictions

Question 63

# Levels of moral reasoning What are limitations? | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 63

Type of offence ## Footnote Thornton and Reid (1982) * Found people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes (assault) * Pre conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crimes in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment * Doesn't applu to all types of crime

Question 64

# Cognitive distortions What are strenghts? | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 64

Real-world application ## Footnote * Application to therapy * Cognitive behaviour therapy aims to challenge irrational thinking in the case of offending behaviour * Offenders are encouraged to face up to what they've done and establsh a less distorted view of their actions * Studies (**Harkins et al 2010**) suggest reduced incidence of denial and minimilisation in therapy is highly associated with a reduced risk of reoffending * Acceptance of one's crime is an important aspect of rehabilitation * Theory of cognitive distortions has practical value

Question 65

# Cognitive distortions What are limitations? | Psychological explanations: Cognitive

Answer 65

Type of offence ## Footnote **Howitt and Sheldon (2007)** * Gathered questionnaire responses from sexual offenders * Found that non-contact sex offenders (accessed sexual images on the internet) used more cognitive distortions than contact sex offenders (had sexually abused children) * Those who had a history of offending were more likely to use distortions as justification * Distortions not used in the same way by all offenders

Question 66

Define the term differential association theory | Psychological explanations: Differential association theory

Answer 66

An explanation for offending which proposes that through interaction with others individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for offending behaviour

Question 67

Offending as a learned behaviour | Psychological explanations: Differential association theory

Answer 67

* Offending behaviour acquired through learning through interactions with significant others who child valuess and spens time with (family/peers) * Mathematically predict how likely it is than an individual commit offences (frequency, intensity and duration of exposure)

Question 68

What are the two factors offending arises from? | Psychological explanations: Differential association theory

Answer 68

1. Learning attitudes towards offending 2. Learning of specific acts/techniques

Question 69

Explain learning attitudes | Psychological explanatioons: Differential association theory

Answer 69

* When socialised into a group, exposed to valies and attitudes to law * Some values are pro-crime others anti * **Sutherland**, if number of pro-criminal attitudes outweighs nmber of anti-criminal attidues they will offend ## Footnote Learning process is same whether learning to offend or conformity to law

Question 70

Explain learning techniques | Psychological explanatioons: Differential association theory

Answer 70

* Learn particular techniques for committing offences * May include how to disable alarms, lockpick etc

Question 71

Explain socialisation in prison | Psychological explanatioons: Differential association theory

Answer 71

* Whilst inside prison inmates learn specific techniques of offending from other more experienced offenders * May use upon release * Learning may occur through observation and imitation or direct tuition from offending peers

Question 72

What are strengths? | Psychological explanatioons: Differential association theory

Answer 72

1. Explanatory power 2. Overall contribution to criminology ## Footnote 1. Explanatory * Can account for crime in all sectors of society * Recognises some crimes are clustured in working-class communities while others are prevalent in affluent sections of society * Sutherland particularly interested in corporate crime and how it may be a feature of middle-class social groups who share deviant norms and values * Can help understanding of a range of crimes 2. Overall contribution to criminology * Sutherland moved the emphasis from early biological accounts (Lombroso) and those that pointed to individual weakness or morality * This theory draws attention to fact dysfuntional social circumstances and environments more to blame for criminality than individuals * More desirable than alternative theories as it offers a more realistic solution to problems of crime than eugenics or punishment

Question 73

What are limitations? | Psychological explanatioons: Differential association theory

Answer 73

1. Difficulty testing theory 2. Deterministic ## Footnote 1. Testing * Sutherland promised to provide a scientific and mathematical framework for predicting offending behaviour it has proved difficult to test * Unclear how we can measure numbers of pro or anti criminal attitudes a person is exposed to * Does not provide a satisfactory solution to these issues * Undermines its scientific credibility 2. Deterministic * Not everyone exposed to criminal influences commits crime * This theory may stereotype peoplle from improverished backgrounds as unavoidably criminal * Suggests exposure to pro criminal values is enough to produce offending behaviour ignoring the fact people may choose not to offend despite such influences * **Thus may be environmentally determinst**

Question 74

Describe superego | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 74

* Guided by morality principle * Leads to feelings of guilt for wrongdoing * Feelings of pride for moral behaviour

Question 75

What does Blackburn propose? | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 75

* If superego is inadequate then the id (governed by pleasure principle) is given free rein and not properly controlled * Uncontrolled id means criminal behaviour is innevitable

Question 76

What are the 3 types of superego? | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 76

1. Weak 2. Deviant 3. Over-harsh

Question 77

Describe weak superego | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 77

* During phallic stage superego is formed in reponse to Oedipus complex * If same-sex parent is absent during this stage the child cannot internalise a fully-formed superego, no oppurtunity for identification * Increase likelihoof behaviour more likely ## Footnote **Absence of same-sex parent**

Question 78

Describe deviant superego | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 78

* Child internalises same-sex parent's moral attitudes to form their superego * If internalised moral attitudes are deviant would lead to a deviant superego and offending behaviour ## Footnote **Child internalises a deviance values**

Question 79

Describe over-harsh superego | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 79

* Excessively punitive or overly harsh superego means individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety * Superego has strict rules and is unforgiving * May (unconsciously) drive individual to perform criminal acts to satisfy superego's overwhelming need for punishment ## Footnote **Criminal acts satisfy need for punishment**

Question 80

What does a loss of attachment lead to? | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 80

* Affectionless psychopathy * **Bowlby** argued a continuous relationship with a mother-figure was crucial to future relationships, well being, development * Loss of attachment in infancy (maternal deprivation) could lead to affectionless psychopathy (lack of empathy and guilt) and increased likelihood of delinquency

Question 81

Describe Bowlby's research | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 81

* 44 thieves study * Found 14 of thieves showed signs of affectionless psychopathy * 12 expereinced prolonged separation from their mothers in infancy * Control group, only 2 had experienced prolonged seperation (maternal deprivation) * Concluded effects of maternal deprivation had caused affectionless psychopathy and delinquent behaviour

Question 82

What are strenghts? | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 82

1. Research support ## Footnote **Goreta** * Conducted Freudian-style analysis of 10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment * Disturbances in superego formation were diagnosed * Each offender experienced unconscious feelings of guilt and need for self-punishment * Explained this as a consequence of an over-harsh superego, the need for punishment manifesting itself as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoing and offend * Supports role of psychic conflicts and over-harsh superego as a basis for offending **COUNTERPOINT** * Centeral principles of inadequate superego theory aren't supported * If theory was correct we would expect harsh punitive parents to raise children who constantly experience feelings of guilt and anxiety * Opposite is true * Parents who rely on harsher forms of discipline tend to raise children who are rebellious and rarely express feeings of guilt or self-critcism **(Krochanska)** * Questions relationship between a strong punitive internal parent and excessive feelings of guilt within child

Question 83

What are limitations? | Psychological explanations: Psychodynamic explanations

Answer 83

1. Gender bias 2. Concerns casuality ## Footnote 1. Gender bias * Assumes girls develop a weaker superego than boys * Because girls do not experience the castration anxiety associated with the Oedipus complex so have less need to identify with their mothers * Should mean females are more prone to criminal behaviour * Not supported by evidence from prison populations * Highlights a serious flaw in psychodynamic explanations of offending behaviour 2. Concerns casuality * **Lewis** * Analysed data from interviews with 500 young people * Found maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending behaviour * Even if there was a link between maternal deprivation and crime does not necessarily indivate a casual link * Genetics and differential association theory are alternative explanations * Any correlation found between maternal deprivation and criminality cannot be said to have found a casual link between the 2 variables

Question 84

What are the aims of custodial sentencing? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 84

* Detterence * Incapacitation * Retribution * Rehabilitation

Question 85

Describe detterence as an aim of custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 85

* Involves a convicted offender spending time in prison, hospital or young offenders institute * Detterence is based on conditioning principles **(punishment)** * Unpleasant experience of prison is designed to decrease likelihood of reoffending **(individual detterence)** * Aims to communicate to society that crime won't be tolerated **(general detterence)**

Question 86

Describe incapacitation as an aim of custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 86

* Ensures offender is taken out of society which protects public from further offending * Need for incapication depends on severity of crime

Question 87

Describe retribution as an aim of custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 87

* Society enacting revenge by making offender suffer * Level of suffering should be proportionate to severity of crime

Question 88

Describe rehabilitation as an aim of custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 88

* Reform of the offender (i.e. learn new attitudes and values and stops being a criminal) * Prison should provide an oppurtunity to develop skills, access ddiction treatments and reflect on crime

Question 89

List the psychological effects of custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 89

* Stress and depression * Institutionalisation * Prisonisation

Question 90

Describe stress and depression as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 90

Suicide and self-harm rates are higher in prisons than general population

Question 91

Describe institutionalisation as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 91

Inability to function outside of prison having adapted to norms and routines of prison life

Question 92

Describe prisoniation as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 92

Behaviours unacceptable outside of prison are encouraged via socialisation into an inmate code

Question 93

Define the term custodial sentencing | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 93

A decision made by a court that punishment for a crime should involve time being in 'custody' - prison (incarceration) or in some other closed therapeutic and/or educational institution e.g. psychiatric hospital

Question 94

Define recedivism | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 94

Refers to reoffending

Question 95

What % of UK offenders reoffend within a year? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 95

57%

Question 96

What is the problem of recedivism? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 96

* UK and US rates are amongst highest in the world * Rates are lower in Norway where there is more emphasis on rehabilitation * Some criticise Nowegian model as 'soft'

Question 97

What are strengths? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 97

1. Oppurtunity for rehabilitation ## Footnote * Rehabilitation model argues offenders may become better people in prison and therefore less likely to reoffend * Many prisoners do access education, training, and anger management schemes * Suggests prison could be a worthwhile experience assuming offenders are able to access these programmes * The Vera Institute of Justiceclaims that offenders who take part in college education programmes are 43% less likely to reoffend following release * And prisons that offer these programmes report fewer incidents of violence

Question 98

What are limitations? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Custodial sentencing

Answer 98

1. Universities for crime 2. Psychological effects ## Footnote 1. Universities for crime * Alongside legitimate skills that offenders may acqure during their time in prison they may also undergo a more dubious education * Differential association theory suggests time spent with hardened criminals may giver younger inmates chance to learn techniques from experienced offenders * Undermine aim of rehabilitation * Increase recidivism rates 2. Psychological effects * **Bartol** * suggested imprisonment can be brutal, demeaning and generally devestating * **Ministry of Justice** a record 119 people killed themselves in prisons in England and Wales in 2015 * Increase of 32% from prievious year * **Prison reform trust** found 25% of women and 15% of men in prison reported symptoms of psychosis * Could impact rehabiitation **COUNTERPOINT** * Figurs in **Prison Reform Trust** don't include number of inmates who were experiencing psychotic symptoms before they were incarcerated * May convicted with pre-existing psychological and emotional difficulties * Importation model argues prisoners may import some of their psychological problems so we don't know if this is a problem of trauma or prison regime * May be confounding variables that influence link between prison and its psychological effects

Question 99

Define behaviour modification | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 99

Application of **behaviourist approach** to treatment (e.g. management of offenders in penal institutions). It is based on the principles of **operant conditoning**. The general aim is to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through the selective use of **positive and/or negative reinforcement (as in token economies)**

Question 100

What might desirable behaviours include? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 100

* Avoiding conflict * Following rules

Question 101

How are tokens rewarding? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 101

* Can be exchanged for something desirable * Reward will vary according to institution * May include exchanging tokens for a phone, extra cigarettes, time in the gym etc

Question 102

Are tokens primary or seconday reinforcers? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 102

Secondary reinforcers ## Footnote * Rewards are primary reinforcers * Tokens are secondary reinforcers as they derive their value from associatin with a primary reinforcer * Would be made clear to prisoners that disobedience can result in tokens and rewards being removed * Behaviours and rewards would also be made clear

Question 103

How would you design a token economy? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 103

* Desirable behaviour identified * It is broken down into small steps (incriments) i.e. **operationalised** * A baseline measure is established (i.e. a way of objectively identifying whether the offender is displaying the desirable behaviour)

Question 104

What is meant by 'behaviours are 'hierachial'? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 104

Some behaviours are regarded as more demanding than others so receive greater rewards

Question 105

By what ratio should reinforcemets outnumber punishments? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 105

4:1 **(Gendreau)**

Question 106

What is the role of staff? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 106

* Must be given full training to implement token economy system successfully * Aim to **standardise procedures** so **all prison staff are rewarding same behaviours in the same way** * Staff must record when they have rewarded tokens in order to assess progress of individual prisoners

Question 107

What are strengths? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 107

1. Easy to implement 2. Individually tailored programmes can be effective ## Footnote **1. Easy to implement** * Does not require specialist professionals like other treatments (e.g. anger management) * Cost-effective * Easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement has beeen established * Can be implemented and designed by virtually anyone in any institution * Behaviour modification techniques can be established in most prisons and accessed by most prisoners **2. Individuals tailored programmes can be effective** * **Field et al** * Examined a token economy programme for young people with behavioural problems * Generally effective * Number of young people didn't respond * Were later placed on a special programme where the rewards were more frequence and immediate * Results were more positive * Suggests effectiveness can be maximised when rewards, frequency of rewards suit each individual

Question 108

What are limitations? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Behaviour modification in custody

Answer 108

1. Little rehabilitative value 2. Ethical issues being raised ## Footnote **1. Rehabilitative value** * **Blackburn** * Argued positive changes in prison may be quickly lost when an offender is released * Token economy works well inside prisons but progress is unlikely to be maintained outside * May be because law-abiding behaviour isn't always reinforced on outside * Rewards received from breaking law may be greater * Limited in value **2. Ethical issues** * Conditions of behaviour modification are regarded as manipulative and dehumanising * Participation is often obligatory for offenders rather than optional * An offender who doesn't comply with the scheme loses 'priveleges' (e.g. contact with loved ones) through withdrawal of tokens * Questions morality and fairness

Question 109

Define anger management | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 109

A theraputic programme that involves identifiying the signs that trigger anger as well as learning techniques to calm down and deal with the situation in a positive way. The aim is to recognise and manage anger. Can be offered in prison to encourage self-awareness and facilitate rehabilitation

Question 110

What does cognition trigger? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 110

Emotions that trigger aggression ## Footnote * **Novaco** * Suggests cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal that comes before aggressive acts * In some anger is quick to surface in situations that are perceived to be threatening or anxiety-inducing * Becoming angry is reinforced by individual's feeling of control in that situation

Question 111

What are anger management programmes a form of? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 111

Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT)

Question 112

What are individuals taught in anger management programmes (CBT)? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 112

* Recognise the cognitive factors that trigger their anger and loss of control * Develop behavioural techniques that bring about conflict-resolution without need for violence

Question 113

Describe stage 1 | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 113

**Cognitive preparation** * Requires offender to reflect on past experience (learn to identify triggers to anger and ways their interpretation of events may be irrational)

Question 114

Describe stage 2 | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 114

**Skill acquisition** * Offenders are introduced to a range of techniques and skills to help them deal with anger-provoking situations **Techniques may be:** * Cognitive - psoitive self-talk to promote calmness * Behavioural - assertiveness training to communicate more effectively * Physiological - methods of relaxation and/or meditation

Question 115

Describe stage 3 | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 115

**Application practive (role play)** * Offenders given oppurtunity to practice their skills in a monitored environment * Role play between offender and therapist may involve re-enacting scenarios that led to anger and violence in past * Successful negtiation of role play would be met with positive reinforcement by therapist

Question 116

Describe positive outcomes with young offenders | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 116

**Keen et al** **Procedure** * Studied progress of young offenders between 17-21 who took part in an anger management programme - 8, 2 hour sessions **Findings** * Initially there was difficulties with offenders forgetting their diaries and not taking it seriously * By end offenders generally reported increased awareness and capacity for self-control

Question 117

What are strengths? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 117

1. Ecletic approach 2. Anger management tries to tackle causes ## Footnote **1. Ecletic approach** * Works on different levels * Cognitive preparation identifies precursors to anger (stage 1) * Behavioural perspective develops self-management techniques (stage 2) * A social approach is adopted when offenders are required to demonstrate what they have learned during role play (stage 3) * Multidiscplinary approach acknowledges that offending is a complex social and psychological activity **2. tackle causes** * Rather than focusing on superficial surface behaviour (as in behaviour modification) * Anger management addresses the thought processes underlying offending behaviour * Anger management may give offenders new insight into the causes of their criminality enabling them to self-discover ways of managing themselves outside of prison * As such it is more likely than behaviour modification to lead to permanent behaviour change and lower rates of recidivism

Question 118

What are limitations? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Anger management

Answer 118

1. Evidence of long-term effectiveness 2. Expense and commitment required ## Footnote 1. Long-term * **Blackburn** * Claimed follow-up studies tended to show that anger management has a definite short-term effect * But there is little evidence it reduces redivism in the long-term * May be because application phase of treatment still relies heavily on artifical role play which may not properly reflect all the possible real-life anger triggers * Questiones effectiveness 2. Expense and commitment * Anger management programmes are expensive to run as they require trained specialists used to dealing with violent offenders * Many prisons cannot fund these programmes * Success of anger management is based on commitment of those who participate * Limit effectiveness

Question 119

Define restorative justice | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 119

A system for dealing with offending behaviour which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through reconciliation with victims (survivors). This enables an offender to see the impact of their crime and serves to empower survivors by giving them a voice

Question 120

What does restorative justice switch the emphasis to? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 120

From the need of the state (to enforce the law) to the needs of the victim (to come to terms with the crime and move on)

Question 121

What role do victims take? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 121

Active role ## Footnote * Victims are encouraged to take an active role in the processes * Offenders are required to take responsibility and face up to what they've done * A supervised meeting between the 2 parties is arranged and managed by a trained mediator

Question 122

What kind of process is restorative justice? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 122

A healing process ## Footnote * **Braithwaite** suggests crime hurts, justice should heal * A **process of managed collaboration** between offender and victim based on the principles of healing and empowerment * Victim is given oppurtunity to explain how incident affected them (including emotional distress) an important part of **rehabilitative process**

Question 123

What are the key features shared by restorative justice? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 123

* Focuses on acceptance of responsibility and positive change, less emphasis on punishment * Non-courtroom setting where offenders voluntarily chose to meet face-to-face with victim (survivor) * Active rather than passive involvement of all parties * Focus on positive outcomes for both survivors and offenders

Question 124

What are some variations of restorative justice programmes? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 124

* Not all involve face-to-face contact between offender and victim * Offender may make some **financial restitution** to victim to compensate for physical or psychological damage done * An add-on to community service or as an incentive which may lead to the reduction of an existing sentence * Offender may fix any physical damage themselves (e.g. bulgary, vandalism)

Question 125

Describe Restorative Justice Council (RJC) | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 125

* Establishes the standard * An independent body * Role is to establish clear standards for the use of restorative justice and to support victims and specialist professionals * Advocates use of restorative justice in schools, hospitals, prisons etc

Question 126

What are strengths? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 126

1. Needs of the survivor 2. Recidivism ## Footnote **1. Needs for survivor** * Evidence suggests it has positive outcomes * **RJC (Shapland et al)** reported results of a major seven-year research project * 85% of survivors reported satisfaction with process of meeting their offender face-to-face * 78% would recommend it to other people experiencing a similiar situation * 60% of survivors felt the process had made them feel better about the incident - enabling them to feel closure and move on * 2% said it had them to feel worse * Restorative justice achieves its aims helping survivors of crime help with the aftermath of the incident **2. Recidvism rates** * **Strang et al** * Meta analysis of 10 studies * Compared offenders who experienced face-to-face restorative justice schemes with those who just experienced custodial sentencing * Restorative justice group was significantly les likely to reoffend * Reduction larger in offenders convicted of violent crime than crimes against property **Bain** * Review of 24 published studies * Found lowered recidivism rates with adult offenders especially when using one-to-one contact rather than general community involvement * Positive impact on reoffending and maybe more so for some types of offence than others and some approaches

Question 127

What are limitations? | Dealing with offending behaviour: Restorative justice

Answer 127

1. May not always be cost-effective 2. Abusing the system ## Footnote **1. Not cost-effective** * **Shapland** * Concluded after a seven-year project every £1 spent on RJ programmes would save the criminal justice system £8 through reduced offending * Other estimates are more conservative * Requires the input of a skilled and experienced individual to act as a mediator to prevent serious conflict * These people are rare and expensive * Programmes have high drop-out rates as victim and/or offender lose their nerve * In practive not cost-effective **2. Abusing the system** * Offenders may abuse the system * Success of restorative justice programmes may hinge on an offender's intentions being honourable * Must be taking part becayse they genuinely regret the hurt they caused and want to make ammends * **Gijseghem** * Suggests offenders may use restorative justice to avoid punishment, playing down their faults, even taking pride in their relationship with survivor using direct contact * Explains why not all offenders ultimately benefit from restorative justice and go on to reoffend