Forensic psychology AO1/2

Question 1

What is the top-down approach to offender profiling?

Answer 1

The top-down approach (FBI method) uses pre-established typologies from interviews with 36 serial killers to classify offenders as organised or disorganised. Profiling is guided by behavioural patterns seen in past crimes. Developed in the 1970s by Douglas and Ressler, it assumes offender behaviour reflects stable personality traits that can be deduced from crime scene details.

Question 2

What are the 4 stages in constructing an FBI top-down profile?

Answer 2

Data Assimilation – Review of evidence (e.g. photos, reports).

Crime Scene Classification – Organised or disorganised offender?

Crime Reconstruction – Hypotheses on sequence of events.

Profile Generation – Inferences on offender’s background (e.g. age, occupation, IQ).

Question 3

How do organised and disorganised offenders differ?

Answer 3

Organised offenders: Planned attack, stranger victim, few clues, socially/sexually competent, average-high IQ, skilled work.

Disorganised offenders: Spontaneous attack, known victim, leaves evidence, low IQ, socially/sexually inadequate, often unemployed.

Question 4

What is the bottom-up approach to offender profiling?

Answer 4

A data-driven approach used in the UK, where hypotheses about the offender’s background, motivations, and characteristics emerge from evidence collected at the crime scene. Unlike the top-down approach, it does not begin with fixed categories and instead uses statistical and psychological analysis (e.g. investigative and geographical profiling).

Question 5

What is investigative psychology and what are its core concepts?

Answer 5

A form of bottom-up profiling (Canter) using statistical techniques to analyse crime scene behaviour.
Core concepts:

Interpersonal coherence – offender’s behaviour reflects everyday patterns.

Time and place – indicates routine or location of offender.

Forensic awareness – suggests prior experience with police.
Supports case linkage by identifying consistent patterns across multiple offences.

Question 6

What is geographical profiling and how is it applied?

Answer 6

Geographical profiling analyses crime locations based on spatial consistency to infer the offender’s operational base.
Key ideas:

Crime mapping and spatial patterns highlight familiar areas.

Centre of gravity marks likely residence.

Canter’s Circle Theory:

Marauder – offends near home.

Commuter – travels to offend elsewhere.
This helps narrow the geographical search area.

Question 7

What is the atavistic form and how does it explain offending behaviour?

Answer 7

Lombroso proposed that criminals are ‘genetic throwbacks’ – biologically inferior individuals who possess primitive characteristics and are ill-suited for modern societal norms. These atavistic traits, such as sloping brows, strong jaws, high cheekbones, or dark skin, were believed to mark out those predisposed to crime. The theory suggests crime is biologically determined and identifiable through physical and behavioural anomalies.

Question 8

What evidence did Lombroso use to support the atavistic form theory?

Answer 8

Lombroso examined the skulls of 383 dead and 3,839 living Italian convicts. He concluded that around 40% of criminal behaviour could be explained by the presence of atavistic features. He also linked specific traits to crime types (e.g., murderers: bloodshot eyes, sexual deviants: glinting eyes, fraudsters: thin lips), providing the first empirical attempt to categorise criminals biologically.

Question 9

What do genetic explanations suggest about offending behaviour?

Answer 9

Genetic explanations propose that individuals inherit predispositions for offending via specific genes or combinations. Twin and adoption studies support this: Christiansen (1977) found 35% concordance for MZ twins vs. 13% for DZs. Crowe (1972) found adoptees with a criminal biological mother had a 50% chance of offending by age 18, compared to 5% for controls. These suggest a heritable component, though not a deterministic one.

Question 10

What are candidate genes and how do they relate to offending?

Answer 10

Candidate gene research focuses on genes like MAOA (linked to serotonin regulation) and CDH13 (linked to neuronal function). Tiihonen (2015) found abnormalities in these genes in Finnish offenders, suggesting they account for 5–10% of severe violent crime. These genes may increase risk for aggression and impulsivity, offering a biological pathway for criminal behaviour.

Question 11

What is the diathesis-stress model and how does it apply to offending?

Answer 11

This model explains how a genetic vulnerability (e.g. MAOA variant) interacts with environmental triggers like abuse. Mednick et al. (1984) found adoptees with both biological and adoptive criminal parents had a 24.5% conviction rate vs. 13.5% when neither had convictions. This highlights how criminality may emerge only when genetic risk is activated by stressors.

Question 12

What do neural explanations say about the biological basis of crime?

Answer 12

Neural explanations focus on dysfunction in brain systems linked to emotional regulation and empathy. Raine (2000) found reduced activity and grey matter in the prefrontal cortex of APD individuals, impairing impulse control. Keysers (2011) showed APD offenders only activated mirror neurons (empathy system) when instructed, suggesting a neural basis for lack of empathy in criminals.

Question 13

What is Eysenck’s theory of the criminal personality?

Answer 13

Eysenck proposed that criminal behaviour stems from a personality type that scores high on Extraversion (E), Neuroticism (N), and Psychoticism (P). These traits are largely biological: extraverts have underactive nervous systems, neurotics are emotionally unstable, and psychotics are aggressive and unempathic. Their personality makes them less responsive to conditioning, meaning they do not learn to associate antisocial acts with guilt.

Question 14

How are the E, N, and P traits biologically explained in Eysenck’s theory?

Answer 14

Extraverts: Underactive reticular activating system → seek stimulation, risk-taking.

Neurotics: Overactive limbic system → emotionally reactive, anxious, unstable.

Psychotics: Possibly higher testosterone → aggressive, impulsive, low empathy.
These biological differences impact ability to be conditioned, increasing likelihood of antisocial behaviour when opportunities arise.

Question 15

What is the role of socialisation in Eysenck’s theory, and how is personality measured?

Answer 15

High E and N individuals are harder to condition during childhood, so do not develop a strong conscience. This makes them less able to resist antisocial impulses.
Eysenck used the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) to measure E, N, and P dimensions. Those scoring high across all three are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour.

Question 16

What is the core principle of Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory (DAT)?

Answer 16

DAT proposes that offending is a learned behaviour acquired through interaction with others. Individuals adopt pro-criminal attitudes, techniques, and motives via socialisation with family, peers, and other significant groups. The theory assumes if the number of pro-criminal attitudes learned exceeds anti-criminal attitudes, offending becomes more likely.

Question 17

How does DAT explain the learning of criminal techniques and attitudes?

Answer 17

Sutherland believed individuals learn not just attitudes towards crime but also specific techniques (e.g. how to steal or hack). Learning occurs through direct tuition or observation of criminal role models. DAT claims it’s possible to mathematically predict offending by knowing the frequency, duration, and intensity of these interactions.

Question 18

How does DAT differ from biological theories of offending?

Answer 18

Unlike biological explanations that focus on genetics or personality, DAT is a social learning theory. It moves the explanation of crime away from innate factors and toward social environments. This reduces the focus on individual blame and offers practical prevention strategies, such as disrupting pro-criminal peer groups.

Question 19

What are the three types of inadequate Superego that explain criminal behaviour (Blackburn, 1993)?

Answer 19

Weak Superego – Due to absent same-sex parent; Superego not properly internalised, so Id is unchecked.

Deviant Superego – Child internalises deviant moral code from criminal parent; wrongdoing not punished by guilt.

Over-harsh Superego – Internalised harsh parent; excessive guilt drives unconscious desire for punishment via offending.

Question 20

How does the psychodynamic theory explain the role of emotion in offending?

Answer 20

The Superego forms during the phallic stage and governs guilt, anxiety, and moral conscience. If development is disrupted, the individual may fail to regulate emotions like guilt, anger, or anxiety, making antisocial behaviour more likely. Emotional dysregulation (e.g. due to repression or trauma) underpins offending.

Question 21

What is Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory and how does it relate to offending?

Answer 21

Bowlby argued that failing to form a secure bond with a mother figure in the first 2.5 years (critical period) leads to irreversible consequences: affectionless psychopathy, lack of empathy, and increased risk of offending. Bowlby found many juvenile thieves lacked maternal attachments.

Question 22

How does psychodynamic theory explain the origin of the Superego and its influence on crime?

Answer 22

The Superego emerges at the end of the phallic stage when children internalise moral rules through identification with the same-sex parent. If this process fails or is distorted (e.g. harsh or absent parent), the individual may not develop a functional conscience, increasing risk of antisocial or criminal behaviour.

Question 23

Q (AO1): What are the four main aims of custodial sentencing?

Answer 23

Deterrence
 * General deterrence: sending a broad message to society that crime will not be tolerated (vicarious reinforcement).
 * Individual deterrence: dissuading the specific offender from reoffending (learning from their own experience).

Incapacitation
 * Physically removes offender from society to protect the public; level of incapacitation set by offence severity.

Retribution
 * “An eye for an eye” – society enacts revenge proportionate to the seriousness of the crime.

Rehabilitation
 * Prison as an opportunity to reform: provide education, training, therapy so that, on release, offenders can reintegrate (prison = reflect + access treatment).

Question 24

Define “recidivism” and how custodial sentences affect it.

Answer 24

• Recidivism = the tendency to relapse into criminal behaviour after release.
• Recidivism rates measure how effective prison is as a deterrent.
• In the U K, ~57 % of released prisoners reoffend within one year (Ministry of Justice).
• Countries that emphasize rehabilitation (e.g., Norway) show much lower recidivism, suggesting custodial focus (punishment-only) correlates with higher reoffending.

Question 25

What are the three major psychological effects of custodial sentencing?

Answer 25

Stress/Depression  * Suicide rates in prison well above the general population.  * Self-harm incidents rise; risk of post-incarceration mental disorders (e.g., depression). Institutionalization  * Adaptation to prison routines (“inmate code”) → inability to cope on the outside. Prisonization  * Prisoners internalize behaviors that “work” in prison but are unacceptable outside (e.g., hyper-vigilance).

Question 26

): What is “anger management” and how does it differ from behaviour modification?

Answer 26

* Definition: A therapeutic programme teaching offenders to identify the emotions that precede anger and to use calming‐down techniques (e.g., relaxation, positive self‐talk, assertiveness) to handle triggering situations constructively, rather than simply suppressing or punishing angry acts. * Key Difference: Unlike behaviour modification (which focuses on reinforcing/inhibiting observable behaviours), anger management concentrates on the underlying cognitive processes—recognising irrational thoughts and automatic emotional responses—to achieve long‐term behaviour change both inside and outside custody.

Question 27

Outline the three stages of a typical anger management programme. A:

Answer 27

Cognitive Preparation  – Offender reflects on past anger episodes, learns to identify “hot‐thought” patterns (irrational beliefs) and reframe events as non‐threatening. Skills Acquisition  – Therapist teaches a range of techniques:   * Cognitive: Positive self‐talk to challenge “I’m going to explode” thoughts.   * Behavioural: Assertiveness training—communicate needs without aggressive outbursts.   * Physiological: Relaxation exercises (deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation) to control arousal. Application Practice  – Role‐plays simulate real‐life anger triggers. Offender rehearses newly learned skills; therapist provides immediate feedback and positive reinforcement for appropriate responses.

Question 28

What is Restorative Justice (RJ)?

Answer 28

* Definition: A system of dealing with offending that emphasizes rehabilitation through reconciliation between offender and victim (often called “survivor”). * Offender “pays back” the survivor by acknowledging harm, making amends (e.g., apology, financial restitution, or repairing damage), and participating in a mediated face-to-face meeting. * Focus shifts from “state-centric” punishment to repairing harm, empowering survivors by giving them a voice, and reintegrating offenders.

Question 29

What are the three key features of an RJ programme?

Answer 29

Facilitated Meeting  * Conducted in a non-courtroom setting (in person or via video).  * A trained mediator ensures safe dialogue: survivor explains emotional/physical impact; offender listens and takes responsibility.  * Optional involvement of family, friends, and community members to support all parties. Sentencing & Restitution  * Offender may offer financial compensation or repair property damage as tangible “reparation.”  * Any criminal sentence (if required) is determined by courts, but RJ focuses on voluntary restitution first. Restorative Justice Council (UK)  * Independent body that sets standards, issues guidelines (e.g., who can facilitate, how to prepare participants), and accredits programmes in schools, prisons, and communities.

Question 30

How does Braithwaite (2004) describe RJ’s unique emphasis?

Answer 30

* RJ places priority on “giving the survivor a voice.” * Offender hears first-hand the emotional consequences of their actions, leading to genuine remorse and acknowledgment of harm. * Mediation is informal (not a courtroom), fostering positive outcomes (empathy, emotional closure) rather than adversarial “guilty/not guilty” judgment. * Guidelines (who speaks when, how apologies are made) are set by the Restorative Justice Council to ensure safety and fairness.

Question 31

What are key additional AO1 concepts in Differential Association Theory (Sutherland)?

Answer 31

Behaviour is learned from close associations. Frequency, duration, and intensity of exposure to pro-criminal attitudes predict offending. Shifts focus from biology to social learning.