Issues and debates AO1 Flashcards
(20 cards)
What is the nomothetic approach in psychological investigation?
The nomothetic approach seeks to formulate general laws of behaviour using scientific methods such as experiments and large, representative samples. It uses quantitative data and inferential statistics to test hypotheses and generate population-level conclusions. Commonly used by the biological and behaviourist approaches, this method allows for objective, replicable research aimed at predicting and controlling behaviour.
What is the idiographic approach and how does it differ from the nomothetic approach?
The idiographic approach focuses on gaining a deep understanding of individual experiences rather than forming general laws. It uses qualitative methods such as case studies and unstructured interviews. For instance, researchers may study individuals with schizophrenia to understand their subjective experience. The aim is not to generalise but to explore unique insights into psychological phenomena.
What is the free will vs determinism debate in psychology?
This debate concerns whether our actions are the result of conscious choice (free will) or determined by internal/external factors (determinism).
Free will = individuals have complete autonomy; linked to humanistic psychology (Rogers, Maslow) which views self-determination as essential for self-actualisation.
Hard determinism (fatalism): all behaviour is governed by forces beyond our control.
Soft determinism: behaviour is influenced by deterministic forces but individuals still make choices (favoured by cognitive psychology).
The debate is central to whether psychology can be considered a science.
What are the types of determinism?
🧬 Biological determinism – behaviour is caused by genes, hormones, brain structure (e.g., MAOA gene and aggression).
🌍 Environmental determinism – learned behaviours shaped by environmental reinforcement and punishment (behaviourist approach).
🧠 Psychic determinism – unconscious conflicts and childhood experience guide behaviour (psychodynamic approach, e.g., Oedipus complex).
Determinism assumes causal explanations for behaviour can be scientifically tested and predicted.
What is the nature vs nurture debate in psychology?
The debate concerns whether behaviour is primarily shaped by biological inheritance (nature) or by environmental factors (nurture).
Nature: Behaviour is the result of genetics, heredity, and biological factors (nativism).
Nurture: Behaviour is the result of learning and environmental influence (empiricism).
Modern psychologists argue for an interactionist approach, where both contribute. Most behaviours lie on a continuum between the two.
What is socially sensitive research (SSR), and why is it ethically important?
Socially sensitive research (SSR) refers to studies with potential social consequences for participants, their group, or society. Sieber and Stanley (1988) argue ethical responsibility goes beyond consent—it includes anticipating how findings may be used or misused in public policy or societal beliefs. This raises concern over psychological harm, discrimination, and reputational damage to participants or entire communities, even if the research itself is methodologically sound.
What is the difference between holistic and reductionist approaches in psychology?
The holism-reductionism debate concerns whether human behaviour is best explained by breaking it down into parts (reductionism) or by understanding systems as wholes (holism). Holism, supported by Gestalt psychologists and humanists, argues that “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts”—meaning behaviour cannot be fully understood by isolating components. Reductionism, in contrast, simplifies complex behaviours into constituent elements, favouring scientific parsimony.
What are the main types of reductionism, and how are they applied in psychology?
There are two key forms:
Biological reductionism (favoured by biological psychologists) explains disorders like schizophrenia via genes and neurotransmitters (e.g. hyperdopaminergia).
Environmental reductionism (favoured by behaviourists) explains behaviour as stimulus–response associations (e.g. attachment via classical/operant conditioning).
These support scientific models but risk oversimplification, especially for behaviours influenced by context.
What is culture bias in psychology?
Culture bias occurs when psychological theory or research unjustifiably assumes universality by ignoring cultural differences. Researchers may impose their own cultural understanding onto individuals from different backgrounds, leading to invalid conclusions.
🔑 Types of bias:
Alpha bias: Exaggerates cultural differences (e.g. collectivist vs individualist behaviours).
Beta bias: Minimises or ignores cultural differences, applying universal assumptions (e.g. using Western norms globally).
Example: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation used Western norms to define secure attachment, ignoring collectivist parenting styles (e.g. Japan), leading to misclassification.
Etic vs. Emic approaches?
Etic approach:
Applies Western/outsider concepts across all cultures (imposed etic).
Ignores cultural context.
Example: Using Western IQ tests globally.
🔄 Emic approach:
Focuses on behaviours within a specific culture.
Uses culturally relevant norms.
Example: Sternberg (1985) – intelligence in African cultures includes motor skills (e.g. shooting an arrow), not just academic reasoning.
✅ AQA expects you to know that imposed etic approaches cause bias, whereas emic avoids it by respecting cultural meaning systems.
What is cultural relativism and how does it challenge universality?
Cultural relativism is the view that behaviours and values must be understood within their cultural context and that there is no universal standard for judging behaviour.
Challenges universality claims (e.g., definitions of attachment, intelligence).
Critiques ethnocentrism: the belief that one’s culture is superior.
⚖️ Example: Facial expressions may be universal, but interpretations of emotions and eye contact vary culturally.
Link: This tension between relativism and universalism reflects an important debate in psychology.
What is gender bias in psychology and how do alpha and beta bias differ?
Gender bias refers to the differential treatment or representation of males and females in psychological research. Alpha bias exaggerates gender differences (e.g. Freud claiming girls develop weaker superegos). Beta bias minimises or ignores gender differences, often assuming male findings apply equally to females (e.g. Asch’s conformity study with 123 males only).
What is androcentrism and how does it relate to gender bias?
Androcentrism is when male behaviour is seen as the norm. It often leads to beta bias, where female behaviour is misunderstood or pathologised. For example, early stress response research (fight or flight) ignored the female-specific ‘tend and befriend’ response (Taylor et al. 2000).
Gender Bias (AO3)
Psychological research often androcentric: male behaviour seen as norm.
Alpha bias exaggerates differences (e.g. Freud); beta bias minimises them (e.g. fight-or-flight).
Feminist psychology promotes reflexivity and gender-sensitive approaches.
Gender bias lowers external validity—findings may not generalise.
Methodological bias: male-only samples and male researchers can distort results.
Cultural Bias (AO3)
Imposed etic: applying Western models to other cultures distorts understanding (e.g. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation).
Cross-cultural psychology highlights diversity but risks stereotyping.
Emic approaches offer culturally grounded insights.
Berry: most psychology uses WEIRD samples, limiting universality.
Cultural relativism improves validity but challenges general laws of behaviour.
Free Will vs Determinism (AO3)
Determinism supports scientific inquiry and treatment development.
Challenges legal and moral responsibility (e.g. criminal accountability).
Libet’s study: unconscious brain activity precedes conscious choice.
Free will aligns with humanistic and moral models of agency.
Soft determinism (cognitive approach) balances autonomy with constraints.
Nature vs Nurture (AO3)
Twin/adoption studies show heritability and environmental influence.
Diathesis-stress model: interactionist (e.g., schizophrenia).
Epigenetics: environment affects gene expression.
Extreme positions (e.g. eugenics, behaviourism) are ethically problematic.
Non-shared environments: even MZ twins show differences (Plomin).
Reductionism vs Holism (AO3)
Reductionism allows scientific control and testability (e.g., brain scans).
But may ignore social/contextual factors (e.g., depression = serotonin vs experience).
Holism captures complexity (e.g., family therapy in schizophrenia).
Holistic theories often lack empirical support and testability.
Interactionist approaches (e.g., diathesis-stress) combine both strengths.
Idiographic vs Nomothetic (AO3)
Idiographic offers depth (e.g., Freud, HM), but lacks generalisability.
Nomothetic is scientific and allows predictions (e.g., biological treatments).
Idiographic may inform theory-building (e.g., case studies inspire hypotheses).
Nomothetic can overlook personal meaning or subjective experience.
Both approaches are complementary in modern psychology.
Ethical Implications (AO3)
Sieber & Stanley: socially sensitive research can harm participants or groups.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation theory influenced harmful childcare policies.
Milgram: valuable findings vs psychological harm.
Ethical guidelines (e.g., BPS Code) attempt to balance risk and benefit.
Sensitive research can reduce stigma (e.g., mental health awareness).
