forensics

Question 1

the top down approach

Answer 1

A tool to help investigators to accurately predict likely offenders.

Question 2

american approach

Answer 2

US- result of work by FBI in 1970s
drew upon data from in-depth interview
categorised into organised or disorganised
data from crime scenes match they can predict patterns
this could be used to find the offender
collect data about a murder characteristics of the murderer the crime scene and then decide on the category the data best fit

Question 3

organised and disorganised type of offender

Answer 3

Organised offender- Evidence of planning, targets victim, tends to be socially and sexually competent with higher-than-average intelligence.

Disorganised offender- Little evidence of planning, leaves clues, tends to be socially and sexually incompetent with lower-than-average intelligence.

Question 4

constructing an FBI profile

Answer 4

(1) Data assimilation- profiler reviews evidence
(2) crime scene classification- organised or disorganised
(3) crime reconstruction- hypotheses of events and behaviour of the victim
(4) profile generation- hypotheses related to the likely offender

Question 5

research support

strength- support for a distinct organised category of offender

Answer 5

100 US murders each committed by a different serial killer
technique called smallest space analysis
this analysis revealed that there does seem to be a subset of features of many serial killings which matched the FBI typology for organised offenders.
suggest that a key component of the FBI typology approach has some validity

Question 6

counterpoint

Answer 6

many studies suggest that the organised and disorganised types are not mutually exclusive.
difficult to classify killers as one or the other type
a killer may have multiple contrasting characteristics such as high intelligence and sexual competence but commit a spontaneous murder leaving the victim’s body at the crime scene
suggesting that the organised disorganised typology is probably more of a continuum.

Question 7

wider application

strength- adapted to other kinds of crimes eg burglary

Answer 7

critics claim that it only applies to a limited number of crimes eg sexually motivated murder
reports that top down profiling has recently been applied to burglary leading to an 85% rise in solved cases in three US states.
add in two other categories- interpersonal- know the victim and steal something of significance and opportunistic- inexperienced younger offenders
suggest that top-down profiling has wider application than was originally assumed

Question 8

flawed evidence

limitation- evidence that it is based on

Answer 8

FBI profiling was developed using interviews with 36 murderers in the US
25 were serial killers
other 11 being single or double murderer
24- organised
12- disorganised
sample is poor- FBI didn’t select a random or even a large sample and didn’t include different kinds of offender
no standard questions and not comparable
doesn’t have a sound scientific basis

Question 9

personality

limitation- based on behaviour consistency may not always lead to successful identification of an offenders

Answer 9

based on behaviour consistency-
serial offenders have characteristic ways of working
referred as leaving their signature on the victim
level of violence or souvenir

questions the idea of behavioural consistency- personality drives behaviour
behaviour is driven more by situation than personality
eg people are not aggressive but in certain situations
behavioural patterns tell us little about the behaviour in everyday life

profiling method based on behavioural consistency may not always lead to successful identification of an offender.

Question 10

bottom up approach

Answer 10

Profilers work up from evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses.
british
instead the profile is data driven and emerges as the investigator engages in deeper and more rigorous scrutiny of the details of the offence
more grounded in psycho

Question 11

investigative psychology

Answer 11

Establishes patterns of behaviour forming a statistical ‘database’.

Interpersonal coherence- Offender’s behaviour at crime scene reflects their everyday behaviour and thus is a clue.

Forensic awareness- Individuals who have been the subject of police interrogation before ‘cover their tracks’.

Question 12

geographical profiling

Answer 12

The location of crimes is a clue, crime mapping based on psychological theories of offender’s behaviour in relation to their home base.

Canter’s circle theory- Marauders operate close to home, commuters operate further afield.

spatial decision- important insight into the nature of the offence eg planned or opportunistic
revealing other important factors about offenders

Question 13

evidence for investigative psychology

strength- evidence supports its use

Answer 13

66 sexual assault cases
data was examined using smallest space analysis
several behaviours were identified as common in different samples eg impersonal language
each individual displayed a characteristic pattern of such behaviour and help establish whether two or more offences were committed by the same person

supports basic principle of investigative psychology that people are consistent in their behaviour

Question 14

counterpoint

Answer 14

case linkage depends on the database and this will only consist of historical crimes that have been solved.
the fact that they were solved may be because it was relatively straightforward to link these crimes together in the first place

suggesting that investigative psychology may tell us little about crimes that have few links between them and therefore remain unsolved

Question 15

evidence for geo profiling

strength- evidence to support

Answer 15

120 murder cases involving serial killers
smallest space analysis reveals spatial consistency in the behaviour of the killers.
the offender base was invariably located in the centre of the pattern. the effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances
supports the view that geo info can be used to identity an offender

Question 16

geo info insufficient

limitation- may not be sufficient on its own

Answer 16

the success of geo profiling msy be reliant on the quality of data that the police can provide
recording of crime is not always accurate can vary between police forces and estimated 75% of crime are not even reported to police in the first place.
calls into question of utility of an approach that relies on the accuracy of geo data
other factors are just as important for creating a profile eg timing, age, experience

geo info alone may not always lead to the successful capture of an offender

Question 17

mixed result

limitation- little practical value

Answer 17

mixed history
regarded different ways by police forces
some positive- 48 police departments found advice useful in 83% of cases

some negative- 3% cases lead to accurate identification of the offender
colin stagg case
chemistry students produced more accurate offenders profiles on solved murder cases than experienced senior detectives

little practical value
may focus police investigations
new lines of enquiry
but leads to identification of the offender falls short

Question 18

eysenck’s theory

Answer 18

Three dimensions combine to form personality: introversion–extraversion (E), neuroticism–stability (N), psychoticism–sociability (P).

Question 19

bio basis

Answer 19

bio origin
types of nervous we inherit
innate bio

extravert- underactive nervous system
seek excitment stimulation more likely to engage i risk taking behaviour

neurotic- high levels of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system, quick to respond- nervous jumpy general instability= difficult to predict

psychotic- higher levels of testosterone unemotional and prone to aggression

Question 20

criminal personality

Answer 20

Mostly neurotic-extraverts: emotionally unstable and overreact (neuroticism) + need arousal and enjoy danger/risk (extraversion). Also high P (aggressive, lack empathy).

Question 21

role of socialisation

Answer 21

offending behaviour as developmentally immature- selfish and immediate gratification
socialisation- more able to delay gratification and more socially oriented

Neurotic-extraverts do not condition easily so do not learn to respond to antisocial behaviour by becoming anxious, as most people do.

Question 22

measuring the criminal personality

Answer 22

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire measures E, N and P to determine type, then linked to other variables.

Question 23

research support

strength- evidence to support the criminal personality

Answer 23

compared 2070 prisoner scores with 2422 control on the EPQ
all age sampled
prisoners recorded higher avg than control
agrees with the predictions of the theory that offenders rate higher than avg across the three dimensions

Question 24

counterpoint

Answer 24

meta-analysis
relevant studies and reported that offenders tend to score high on measures of psychoticism but not for extraversion and neuroticism
inconsistent evidence of difference in EEG measures
cast doubt on theory
some central assumptions of the criminal personality have been challenged

Question 25

too simplistic

limitation- idea that offending is explained by personality tests alone

Answer 25

the distinction between offending behaviour that occurs in teens only and that which continues into adulthood,
personality traits alone- poor predictor of how long offending behaviour would go on for
persistence in offending- result of a reciprocal process between personality trait and environmental reactions to those triats
more complex picture than suggested
offering behaviour is determined by an interaction between personality and environment

Question 26

cultural factors

limitation- cultural factors are not taken into account

Answer 26

criminal personality may vary according to culture
studied Hispanic and African American offenders in max prison NY
divided into 6 groups based on offending history and nature of the offence
all 6 groups were less extravagant than non-offender control group
the sample was a very different cultural group from eysenck
how far the criminal personality can be generalised and suggest it may be a culturally relative concept

Question 27

measuring personality

limitation- personality may not be static

Answer 27

built on the possibility to measure personality
usefulness of EPQ based on potential for real-world application- see how it differs from the rest of the pop
early criminal traits could be recognised

however personality type may to be reducible to score
too complex and dynamic to be quantified
people in different mods and personalities all at once
not tapping into the persons essence or revealing stable criminal traits
undermines any claims eysenck made about being able to identify natural criminal using the EPQ as personality may not be static

Question 28

levels of moral reasoning

moral development

Answer 28

higher stage= more sophisticated the reasoning
many studies have suggested that offenders tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning
group of violent youths were at a significantly lower level of moral development than non violent youths even after controlling for social background

Question 29

links with criminality

Answer 29

offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level

non-offenders- conventional level and beyond

pre-convention- need to avoid punishment gain rewards less mature childlike reasoning

offenders are more self centred and display poorer social perspective-taking skills than non offending peers

higher levels tend to sympathisers more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviour eg honesty generosity non violence

Question 30

stage one

pre conventional

Answer 30

stage 1 punishment orientatied
rules are obeyed to avoid punishment

stage 2 instrumental orientation or person gain
rules are obeyed for person gain

Question 31

stage 2

conventional

Answer 31

stage 3 good person orientation
rules are obeyed for approval

stage 4 maintenance of social order
rules are obeyed to maintain social order

Question 32

stage 3

post conventional

Answer 32

stage 5 morality of contract and individual rights
rules are challenged if they infringe on the right of others

stage 6 morality of conscience
individuals have a personal set of ethical principles

Question 33

research support

strength- link between level of moral reasoning and crime

Answer 33

comapred moral reasoning in 332 non offenders and 126 convicted offenders using the socio moral reflection measure short form contains 11 moral dilemma questions
offender group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non offender group
consistent with predcictions

Question 34

types of offence

limitation- depend on offence

Answer 34

people who committed crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes eg assault.
pre-conventional moral reasoning tends to be associated with crime in which offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishing
doesn’t apply to all forms of crime

Question 35

thinking vs behaviour

limitation- understanding moral behaviour is more useful as not everyone who has criminal thoughts will act on them

Answer 35

insight to the mechanics of criminal mind
offenders- more childlike and self centred when it comes to moral judgement than law abiding majority
offender struggle with perspective of others- may explain the lack of empathy that drives them to commit crime

however moral thinking isn’t the same as moral behaviour
use of moral dilemma poor predictor of real life behaviour
low external validity
moral reasoning is more interested likely to be used to justify behaviour after its happened than before
understanding moral behaviour may be more useful as not everyone who has criminal thoughts will act on them.

Question 36

differential association theory

Answer 36

We learn pro-offending or anti-offending values/attitudes through different people we associate with.

Question 37

scientific basis

Answer 37

Sutherland wanted to identify the conditions that cause crime when they are present but not when they are absent.

designed to separate between people who become offenders and those who don’t

Question 38

offending as a learned behaviour

Answer 38

• interactions with significant others values most and spends most time with eg family or peers
• mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit offences

Offenders learn attitudes towards offending
exposed to values and attidues towards the law
pro crime outweigh anti crime- will offend

specific offending acts or techniques.
learn techniques for committing offences

Question 39

socialisation in prison

Answer 39

Reoffending is high because prisoners associate with each other and learn techniques through imitation and direct tuition.

more experienced offenders teach less skills which they use when released

Question 40

shift of focus

strength- changed the focus of offending explanations

Answer 40

moving the emphasis away from early bio accounts
and from offending= product of individual weakness or immorality
draws attention to deviant social circumstances and environments more to blame for offending than deviant people
more desirable- more realistic solutions to offending instead of eugenics or punishment

Question 41

counterpoint

Answer 41

DA runs the risk of stereotyping people from impoverished crime ridden backgrounds
theory tends to suggest that exposure to pro crime values is sufficient to produce offending
ignores people may choose to not offend despite such influences
not everyone exposed will go offende

Question 42

wide reach

strength- accounts for offending within all sectors of society

Answer 42

some types of crime eg burglary clustered within certain inner city working class- also the case that some are clustered amongst more affluent groups in society 
white-collar- a feature of middle class social groups who share deviant norms and values
not just lower classes who commit offences and principles can be used to explain all offences

Question 43

difficulty testing

limitation- difficult to test predictions of DA

Answer 43

provided scientific mathematical framework within offending can be predicted- must be testable
prob- concepts cant be tested- not operationalised
hard to see how the number of pro crime attidues a person has or been exposed to could be measured

built on the assumption that offending occurs when pro crime outnumber anti crime
we cant know when the urge to offend is relaised and the offending career triggered
doesn’t have scientific credibility

Question 44

psychodynamic explanations of offending

inadequate superego

Answer 44

if the superego is somehow deficient then offending behaviour is inevitable- ID is given free rein and not properly controlled
Superego formed out of phallic stage when Oedipus/Electra conflict resolved, but offending more likely when Superego is inadequate.

Weak Superego- Child does not identify with same-gender parent (may be absent), so does not internalise moral code, no ‘conscience’.

Deviant Superego- Child internalises an immoral Superego from e.g. criminal father, no guilt about offending.

Over-harsh Superego- Child identifies with very harsh same-gender parent, overwhelming guilt and anxiety, offends to satisfy Superego’s need for punishment.

Question 45

the role of emotion

Answer 45

Inadequate Superego allows primitive, irrational, emotional demands (the Id) to guide moral behaviour.

acknowledges to role of anxiety and guilt in the development of offending behaviour
lack of guilt is relevant to understanding offending behaviour

Question 46

theory of maternal deprivation

Answer 46

Bowlby: offending caused by failure to form close attachment bond with mother-figure in first two years leading to affectionless psychopathy- lack of guilt empath and feeling for others.

shown in 44 juvenile thieves study
14/44 showed personality and behavioural characteristics of affectionless psychopathy
12/14 experienced prolonged separation

Question 47

research support

strength- link between offending and superego

Answer 47

10 offenders referred for psychiatric treatment
all assessed- disturbances in supeego were diagnosed
each offender experience unconscious feelings of guilt and the need for self punishment
consequences of an over harsh supergo
need for punishment manifesting itself as a desire to commit acts of wrongdoing and offend
support the role of psychic conflict and over harsh superego as a basis for offending

Question 48

counterpoint

central principles of inadequate superego theory are not supported

Answer 48

if correct
expect harsh parents to raise children who constantly experience feelings fo guilt and anxiety
evidence suggest the opposite is true
parents who rely on harsher forms of discipline tend to raise children who are rebellious and rarely express feelings of guilt or self criticism
calls into question the relationship between a strong harsh internal parent and excessive feelings of guilt within the child

Question 49

gender bias

limitiation- theory is gender biased

Answer 49

girls develop weaker superego than boys
bc identification with the same gender parent is not as strong
girls dont experience intense emotion associated with castration anxiety therefore are under less pressure to identify with their mothers
their superego is less fully realised
implication- women should be more prone to offending than men
rates of imprisonment show the opposite is true
1: 20 women :men in prison
study children required to resist temptation found any evidence of gender differences
if so- girls tended to be more moral than boys
there is alpha bias - not appropriate as an explanation of offending behaviour

Question 50

other factors

limitation- only based on an association between maternal deprivation and offending

Answer 50

analysed data from interviews t
500 people
maternal deprivation= poor predictor of future offending
if link- children who have experienced frequent or prolonged separation from their mothers and offending in later life not causal
other links- growing up in poverty
maternal deprivation may be one of the reason for later offending but not the only

Question 51

contribution

limitation- lack of credible scientific basis

Answer 51

first to link early experiences in childhood to moral behaviour and offending
draws attention to emotional basis ignored by other explanations eg bio
emphasis on the role of guilt and anxiety in the development of a criminal career

not open to empirical testing
lack of supporting evidence- only judged at face value > scientific worth
core principles don’t meet the scientific criterion of falsifiability
practical value is limited
have contributed but lack credible scientific basis