gender

Question 1

the role of chromosome and hormones in sex and gender

Answer 1

23 pairs in humans containing genetic information, 23rd pair determine biological sex: XX for female XY for male.

the y chromosomes carries a gene called the sex determining region y or SRY, SRY gene causes testes to develop in an XY embryo.

these produce androgens: male sex hormones.

Question 2

the role of hormones

Answer 2

most gender development comes from the influence of hormones.
hormones act upon brain development and cause development of reproductive organs.
a burst of hormonal activity trigger the development of secondary sexual characteristic
males and females produce same hormones but different concentrations
Hormones are chemical substances produced in the body that control and regulate the activity of certain cells or organs.

Question 3

testosterone

Answer 3

male hormones
present in small quantities in women

controls development of male sex organs during foetal development
no sex hormones in foetal development= no peepee
if female produce high levels= male sex organs may appear

high levels of testosterone are also linked to aggression- adaptive
aggression- help mate with women
women tend to children= men more likely to take hunter role and success would be enhanced by aggressiveness

Question 4

oestrogen

Answer 4

female hormone- determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
cause heightened emotionality and irritability during menstrual cycle

Question 5

oxytocin

Answer 5

women produce in larger amounts than men
giving birth- stimulates lactation
reduces the stress hormone cortisol and facilitates bonding
released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth
men produce less of this hormone
men are less interested in intimacy and closeness within a relationship

evidence suggest that both produce oxytocin in roughly qual amounts during amorous activities,,, seggy time ig

Question 6

evidence for testosterone

strength- role of sex hormones in gender development even in mature males

Answer 6

link between increased testosterone and sexual behaviour was confirmed in a study
male hypogonadism is condition caused by man’s testes failing to produce normal levels of the male sex hormones
227 hypogonadal men testosterone therapy for 180 days
changes in body shape muscle strength sexual functioning libido were monitored
improved all

testosterone exerts a powerful and direct influence on male sexual arousal and physical development in adulthood

Question 7

counterpoint

Answer 7

other evidence is less convincing
double-blind placebo study
increased levels of testosterone levels in healthy men
no significant increase of sexual behaviour
no changes in aggression or anger levels
additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour- doesn’t challenge the role in early development

Question 8

social factors ignored

limitation- bio accounts ignore the role of social factors in gender-related behaviour

Answer 8

gender roles around the world= more of social norms than bio
notions of masculinity and feminity do with individualist or collectivist
individualist- more masc eg independence is important
UK, US traditional masc traits highly valued

challenges bio explanations of gender behaviour and suggest social factors are more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes

Question 9

reductionist

limitation- bio explanations are reductionlist

Answer 9

accounts reduce gender to levels of chromosomes and hormones
ignore or downplay alt explanations
cog approach would draw attention to influence of thought processes eg schemas
changes in thought processes may be due to maturation of the developing brain not explained by bio model
psychodynamic would acknowledge maturation as a factor but also childhood experiences
gender is more complex than bio influences alone

Question 10

pathologising gender

limitation- social sensitive and could cause issues with stereotypes of women in the workplace

Answer 10

conditions cause changes in sex hormones
PMS- some is very extreme changes
a diagnosis means person can access treatment on NHS to control the symptoms

however could be stereotypes of women’s experience and emotions
social construction > bio fact
encourages stereotypes of irrational women affecting how women are treated in society

men’s anger is explained as a result of external stress eg work not regarded the same

benefits of treatment may not justified because enhancing negative expectations about women damages their equal rights in work place

Question 11

atypical sex chromones patterns

Answer 11

Any set of sex chromosome patterns that deviates from the usual XX/XY.

Klinefelter- XXY

turner-XO

Question 12

klinefelter

Answer 12

1 in 600 
bio males 
anatomical appearance of male 
10% identified by prenatal diagnoses
2/3 not aware 
diagnosis accidentally via medical examinations for unrelated conditions

Question 13

physical

klinefelter

Answer 13

reduce body hair
some breast development
softening or rounding body contours
long gangly limbs
underdeveloped geneitals
problems with coordination and clumsiness
susceptible to health problems more commonly found in women

Question 14

psycho

klinefelter

Answer 14

poor developed language skills and reading ability
passive shy lack interest in sexual activity
not response well in stressful situations
exhibit problems with executive functions eg memory and problem solving

Question 15

turner syndrome

Answer 15

1 in 5000
absence of 1 of the 2 x chromo
XO

Question 16

physical

turner

Answer 16

dont have menstrual cycles 
ovaries dont develop- infertile 
don't develop breasts 
broad shield chest 
low set ears 
webbed neck 
high waist to hip ratio 
hip not bigger than waist 
physically immature and tend to retain appearance of prepubescent girls

Question 17

psycho

turner

Answer 17

higher than avg reading ability
performance on spatial visual memory and maths lower than avg
immature appearance- tend to be socially immature
trouble relating to peers and experience difficulty fitting in

Question 18

nature-nurture debate

strength- research into atypical sex chromo contributes to nature nurture debate

Answer 18

comparing typical and atypical- possible to see psycho and behavioural differences between them
logically inferred these differences have a bio basis
direct result of abnormal chromo structure

support the view that innate nature influences have a powerful effect on psycho and behaviour

Question 19

counter

Answer 19

issues in leaping to conc
relationship between atypical chromo and differences in behaviour is not causal
environmental and social influences more responsible for behavioural differences observed
eg social immaturity- bc they’ve been treated immaturely by people
prepubescent appearance= encourages immature behaviour
indirect impact on performance in school
specific learning and developmental problems identified

wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences in people with atypical sex chromo patterns are due to nature

Question 20

real-world application

strength- application to managing the syndromes

Answer 20

research in atypical sex chromo lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of turner and klinefelter and more positive outcomes

87 ppt with kline identified and treated at a young age experience benefits in management compared to those diagnoses in adulthood

increase awareness of atypical chromosome patterns does have a useful real-world application

Question 21

sampling issues

limitation- description of Klinefelter may be a sampling issue

Answer 21

to identify the characteristics of XXY and XO it is necessary to identify a large number of individuals with the disorder and build a database
we can see the full range of characteristics from mild to severe
if only the severe symptoms are identified the picture of typical symptoms may be distorted
protective studies- more accurate pic of characteristics
many with kline don’t experience significant cog or psycho issues and many are highly successful academically, personal lives and careers
suggest that the typical picture of kline and turner may be exaggerated.

Question 22

knowing or not knowing

strength- benefits of knowing may outweigh the potentially neg effects on self concept

Answer 22

many people with kline or turner are unaware this may be good as it avoids self-fulling prophecy
early diagnosis may have a significant effect on a child self concept eg child with kline might expect to have difficulty with language comprehension and reduce motivation in school
however, early knowledge of the syndrome may help a person understand why they appear and act differently from others
means child doesn’t feel at fault- less likely to blame themselves
early access to med and psycho support
helps parents plan for the future

benefits of knowing may outweigh the potentially neg effects on self concept

Question 23

Kohlberg theory

stages of development

Answer 23

Child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age, progressing through three stages.

not linked with experience but the result of biological maturation
stage to stage gradual
three stages

Question 24

stage 1- gender identity

Answer 24

Around age 2 years. Child recognises that they are a boy or a girl and labels others as such.
view gender as not fixed

Question 25

stage 2- gender stability

Answer 25

Around age 4 years. Own gender is fixed over time and they realise they will be a boy or a girl when they are older.

cant apply this logic to toehrs
confused by external appearances
believe that others can change genders

Question 26

stage 3- gender constancy

Answer 26

Around age 6 or 7 years. Own gender and other people’s gender are consistent over time and situations.
age to begin to seek out gender-appropriate roles models to identify with and imitate
fully developed and internalised concept of gender at the constancy stage
gender stereotyping begins to emerge at this age

Question 27

research support

strength- evidence suggesting that gender stereotyping does emerge around the age of 6

Answer 27

children were told a story about George a boy who liked to play with dolls
children were asked to comment
4- fine if he wanted to
6- wrong for George to play with dolls
they had gone beyond understanding girls and boys to developing rules about what they ought to do (gender stereotyping)
children who have achieved constancy have formed rigid stereotypes regarding gender appropriate behaviour

Question 28

counterpoint

other research challenges the idea that an interest in gender appropriate behaviour only develops around the age 6

Answer 28

found children as young as 4 reported feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys and bad when doing the opposite

contradicts Kohlberg’s theory would predict
supports gender schema theory
suggests that children begin to absorb gender appropriate info as soon as they identify themselves as either a boy or a girl

Question 29

methodological problem

limitation- supporting research relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender constancy

Answer 29

key test- if child understands that gender stays consists in appearances and context
younger children are confused by this- we identify gender from clothes and hair
best way is physical differences- something younger children don’t understand
40% of children aged 3-5 years were able to demonstrate constancy if they were shown a photo of a naked child

suggests that the typical way of testing gender constancy may misrepresent what younger children actually know

Question 30

degrees of constancy

limitation- there may be different degrees of gender constancy

Answer 30

kohlberg theory- recognises children’s understanding of their own and other genders guides their thoughts and behaviour
doesn’t say when and how this affects gender related behaviour
1st- orient children to the importance of gender eg choosing friends/ seeking info
2nd- child’s responsiveness to gender norms eg choosing clothes or attitudes
suggest that the acquisition of constancy may be a more gradual process and may begin earlier than Kohlberg thought

Question 31

gender schema theory

Answer 31

Organised set of beliefs and expectations about gender which guides gender-appropriate behaviour.

shares view that children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning rather than by passively observing and imitating role models

Question 32

gender schemas after gender identity

Answer 32

Only gender identity is needed for the development of gender schema, generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and stereotypical gender appropriate behaviour.
once a child establishes gender identity around 2-3 years they will look for info that encourages the development of gender schema.
This contrasts with Kohlberg’s view that this process only begins after they have reached gender constancy.

Question 33

gender schema determines behaviour

Answer 33

Schema are likely to be formed around stereotypes and these direct experience as well as the child’s understanding of itself, e.g. ‘I am a boy so I play with cars and wear trousers’. Children misremember or disregard information that does not fit with their schema.

Question 34

ingroup information better remembered

Answer 34

children better understanding of the schema that are appropriate to their own gender- in group

consistent with the idea that children pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity rather than that of the other gender- outgroup

its not until children are a little older around 8 that they develop elaborate schemas for both gender

ingroup serves to bolster the child’s self esteem

Question 35

research support

strength- key principles are supported by evidence

Answer 35

children under the age of 6 were more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour than photographs of gender inappropriate behaviour when tested a week later.
children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender inappropriate activity in the photographs when asked to recall them so that the gender behaviour was now appropriate.
children under 6 years would do this

Question 36

earlier gender identity

limitations- gender identity probably develops earlier than suggested

Answer 36

longitudinal study
82 children
data- twice weekly report from mother on their children’s language from age 9 to 21 months
key measure of gender identity was taken to be how and when children labelled themselves as a boy or girl
as soon as child communicate suggesting that children actually have a gender identity before this but just dont communicate it

research underestimated children ability to use gender labels about themselves

Question 37

counterpoint

Answer 37

may not be appropriate to argue about specific ages. they suggest that the key point is the shift in a child thinking and that the ages are avg rather than absolute
possible that many children may move thought stages quicker or slower than other.
its the sequences of developments is more important

Question 38

cultural differences

strength- account for cultural differences in stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour

Answer 38

influences culturally appropriate gender behaviour
women- nurturing
men- career
children form a schema which are consistent with the view
societies with less rigid boundaries= children acquire more fluid gender schema
gender schema are transmitted between members of a society and how cultural difference in gender stereotype come about
other explanations of gender development eg psycho which suggest gender identity is more driven by unconscious bio urges

Question 39

timing
limitation- disagreement about when the child begins to actively search for gender-appropriate information in their understanding of gender.

Answer 39

agrees that children play an active role in their gender development
they disagrees on the precise timing of when this start to happen
kohlberg argues that children must achieve gender constancy before they are able to look for example

martin and halverson claims that a child recognises themselves as a boy or a girl (gender identity) they begin to form attitudes and select behaviour that align with their ingroup. this involves an active search for confirmatory evidence of gender stereotypical attitudes and behaviour .

this explains why children rationalise or misremember info that doesn’t fit with theri existing schema.

disagreement about when the child begins to actively search for gender-appropriate information in their understanding of gender.