forensics AI

Question 1

define profiling

Answer 1

A behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile characteristics of unknown criminals
The main aim of offender profiling is to narrow the field of enquiry and the list of likely suspects

Question 2

what are the two elements of bottom up profiling

Answer 2

investigative psychology

geographical profiling

Question 3

define bottom up profiling

Answer 3

profilers work up from the evidence collected from the crime scene to develop hypotheses about the likely characteristics , motivations and social background of the offender

Question 4

define investigative psychology

Answer 4

a form of bottom up profiling that matches details from the crime scene with statistical analysis of typical offender behaviour patterns based on psychological theory.

Question 5

define geographical profiling

Answer 5

a form of bottom-up profiling based on the principle of spatial consistency ; that an offenders operational base and possible future offences are revealed by the geographical location of their previous crimes

Question 6

outline investigative psychology as a form of bottom up profiling

Answer 6

investigative psychology attempt to apply statistical procedures alongside psychological theory to analysis of crime scene evidence. the aim in relation to offender profiling , to establish patterns of behaviour that are likely to occurr or co-exist across crime scenes.

This is done to develop a statistical ‘database’ which then acts as a baseline for comparison. specific comparison can be then matched against this database to reveal important details about the offender.

this may also determine whether a series of offences are linked in that they are likely to have been commited by the same profile.

Question 7

outline geographical profiling as a form of the bottom up approach

Answer 7

geographical profiling uses information to do with the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an offender - known as crime mapping

Location can also be used alongside psychological theory to create hypotheses about how the offender is thinking as well as their modus operandi

• The assumption is that serial offenders restrict their ‘work’ to areas that they are familiar with , therefore understanding the spatial pattern of their behaviour provides investigators with a centre of gravity , which may help investigators make educated guesses about where the offender is likely to strike next called the jeapordy surface

Question 8

what is canters circle theory for 2 models of offending behaviour - bottom up approach

Answer 8

The marauder – operates close to their home base.

The commuter – likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence when committing a crime.

Question 9

outline one strength of geographical profiling - supporting evidence

Answer 9

one strength of geographical profiling is that there is supporting evidence. for example Lundrigan & Canter (2001) collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in the US. The location of each body disposal site was plotted, and a ‘centre of gravity’ identified. this is a strength of geographical profiling as it shows spatial information is a key factor in determining the base of an offender, therefore it is assumed that this is a valid method of offender profiling

Question 10

outline one strength of the bottom up approach- objective and scientific

Answer 10

one strength of the bottom up approach to offender profiling is that it is more objective and scientific. for example due to the advances in artificial intelligence, investigators can manipulate geographical , biographical and psychological data quickly to produce insights that assist the investigation. this means that the bottom up approach is more grounded in evidence and theory and less driven by speculation and hunches. the impact of this should be that offenders are more quickly and accurately identified in investigations

Question 11

outline one strength of investigative psychology - supporting evidence

Answer 11

There is evidence to support investigative psychology. Canter & Heritage (1990) did a content analysis of 66 sexual assault cases using smallest space analysis. Several characteristics were identified in most cases e.g. use of impersonal language

Question 12

outline one limitation of the bottom up approach - better at narrowing down than identifying

Answer 12

one limitation of the bottom up approach is that there are issues with offender profiling. for example in Rachel nickells death the original suspect had been ruled out of the enquiry at an early stage because he was several inches taller than the profile which had been created through the bottom up approach. this suggest that profiling may lead the investigation in the wrong direction if considered too literally. it may mean that bottom up approach may be more effective at narrowing down a list of offenders rather than identifying the assailant.

Question 13

outline one limitation of the bottom up approach - mixed support

Answer 13

one limitation of the bottom up approach is that there is mixed support from studies into the effectiveness of offender profiling. for example Copson (1995) surveyed 48 police forces- advice provided by a profiler was judged ‘useful’ in 83% of cases but led to accurate identification of an offender in just 3% of cases. this means that there are some significant issues with the reliability and accuracy of the bottom up approach to profiling which may make it inaccurate to use when identifying offenders

Question 14

define the top down approach

Answer 14

profilers start with a pre established typology and work down in order to assign offenders to one of two categories based on the witness accounts and evidence from the crime scene.

Question 15

define organised offender

Answer 15

an offender who shows evidence of planning , targets the victim and tends to be socially and sexually competetent with higher than average intelligence

Question 16

define disorganised offender

Answer 16

an offender who shows little evidence of planning , leaves clues and tends to be socially and sexually incompetent with lower than average intelligence

Question 17

define offender profiling

Answer 17

also known as criminal profiling a behavioural and analytical tool that is intended to help investigators accurately predict and profile the characteristics of unknown criminals.

Question 18

Outline the top down approach

Answer 18

the top down approach originated in the US. it is also known as the typology approach , offenders who use this method will match what is known about the crime scene and the offender to a pre existing template that the FBI developed. murdereres and rapists are classified into one of two categories organised or disorganised on the basis of evidence which informs the subsequent police investigation

Question 19

what are the two categories used in the top down approach to categorise offenders

Answer 19

organised offenders and disorganised offenders

Question 20

outline organised offenders

Answer 20

they show evidence of having planned the crime scene in advance , the victim is deliberately targetted and will often reflect on the idea the offender has a type. they maintain a high degree of control during their crime and operate with precision.

socially and sexually competetent
above average IQ
married with children

Question 21

outline disorganised offenders

Answer 21

disorganised offenders show little evidence of planning , suggesting the offence may have been spontaneous , spur of the moment act. teh crime scene tends to reflect the nature of the attack- the body is still left at the crime scene and their appears to be little control on the part of the offender.

-unskilled unemployed
lower than average IQ
history of sexual dysfunction and failed relationships
live alone and relatively close to the offense

Question 22

what are organised and disorganised offenders based on the idea of

Answer 22

organised and disorganised offenders is based on the idea that serious offenders have a signature way of working (modus operandi) and these generally correlate with a particular set of social and psychological characteristics which relate to the individual

Question 23

what are the four main stages to constructing an FBI profile

Answer 23

stage 1 - data assimilation the profiler reviews the evidence (e.g crime scene photographs)

stage 2 - crime scene classification - as either organised or disorganised offender

stage 3 - crime scene reconstruction - hypothesis in terms of sequence of events , behaviour of the victim e.t.c

stage 4 - profile generation - hypotheses related to the likely offender e.g physical characteristics

Question 24

outline one strength/limitation of the top down approach to offender profiling - supporting evidence

Answer 24

one strength of the top down approach is that it has supporting evidence . for example canter found evidence of a distinct organised type , he analysed data from 100 USA murders using the smallest space of analysis where details of each case were examined with reference to 39 characteristics thought to be typical of organised and disorganised killers. this provides some support for the top down approach , however there was no evidence for a distinct disorganised type. this undermines the classification system as a whole as it questions its validity

Question 25

outline one limitation of the top down approach to offender profiling - only applies to certain crimes

Answer 25

one limitation of the top down approach is that it may only apply to certain crimes where crime scenes report important details about the suspect e.g rape and cult killings. this method of profiling does not help when the crimes are more common such as burglary and where the crime scene reveals little information about the offender. this reduces the ability for this method of profiling to be used to identify a criminal

Question 26

outline one limitation of the top down approach to offender profiling - prediction of next move

Answer 26

one limitation of the top down approach is that it is based on the idea that peoples behaviour remains the same across situations and contexts . for example that personality drives behaviour and is not impacted by external factors . several critics have argued that this is incorrect and that the behaviour is driven by aspects other than personality which are more changeable . this reduces the validity of top down profiling as it may not be useful to predict an offenders next move.

Question 27

outline one limitation of top- down profiling - too simplistic

Answer 27

top down profiling is too simplistic , the behaviours that describe organised and disorganised types of offenders are not mutually exclusive . for example a crime scene can have a combination of organised and disorganised characteristics. this suggests that the top down approach may not be a valid way to categorise offenders. it has led to other researhcers to propose more detailed typological models such as holmes who said that there were 4 types of serial killer.

Question 28

outline one limitation of top down profiling - small sample and unrepresentative theory

Answer 28

the sample used to create the top down profiling is too small and unrepresentative . it was developed using interviews with 36 killers in the US - 24 were serial killers and 11 were single or double murderers. critics have suggested that it is not sensible to rely on self report data with convicted killers when constructing a classification system because the information that they provide could be inaccurate leading to a invalid classification system

Question 29

define criminal personality according to eysenck

Answer 29

an individual who scores highly on measures of extraversion , neuroticism and psychoticism and cannot be easily conditioned is cold unfeeling and is likely to engage in criminal behaviour

Question 30

outline eysencks criminal personality

Answer 30

eyesencks criminal personality uses eysencks personality inventory to measure residents along the E and N dimensions to determine their personality type. according to eysenck our personality traits are biological in origin and come about through the nervous system we inherit, therefore all personality types including criminal personality have an innate biological basis. the criminal personality is neurotic extravert , a combination of all the characteristics of neuroticism and extraversion. aswell as scoring highly on psychoticism.

Question 31

outline characteristics of an exravert

Answer 31

extraverts have an underactive nervous system which means they constantly seek excitement and stimulation and are likely to take part in risk taking behaviours. they also tend not to condition easily and do not learn from their mistakes.

Question 32

outline the characteristics of a neurotic individual

Answer 32

neurotic individuals tend to be nervous jumpy and over anxious , resulting in their general instability which means their behaviour is often difficult to predict.

Question 33

what type of personality is the criminal personality according to eysenck

Answer 33

neurotic-extravert

Question 34

outline the role of socialisation in eyesencks criminal personality

Answer 34

in eysencks theory personality is linked to criminal behaviour via the socialisation process. eyesenck saw criminal behaviour as developmentally immature in that it is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification. the process of socialisation is one in which children are taught to become more able to delay gratification and more socially orientated. eyesenck believed that people with high E and N scores had nervous systems which made them difficult to condition. as a result of this they would not learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety. consequently , they would be more likely to act antisocially or criminally

Question 35

outline one strength of eysencks criminal personality- supporting evidence

Answer 35

one strength - supporting research eysenck compared 2070 male prisoners' scores on the EPI with 2422 male controls. groups were subdivided into age groups ranging from 16-69 years. on measures of psychoticism , extraversion and neuroticism across all age groups , prisoners recorded higher scores than controls which accords with the predictions of the theory.

Question 36

outline one limitation of eysencks criminal personality - too simplistic

Answer 36

the idea that all offending behaviour can be explained by a single personality type has been heavily criticised , for example digmans five factor model of personality suggest that alongside E and N there are additional dimensions of openness , agreeableness and conscientiousness . from this perspective multiple combinations are available and therefore it shoes that high E and N scores does not mean offending is inevitable.

Question 37

outline one limitation of eysencks criminal personality - cultural bias

Answer 37

one limitation of eysencks criminal personality is that it may suffer from cultural bias. for example bartol looked into cultural differences and studied hispanic and african american offenders in maximum security prisons and divided these into six groups based on their criminal history and the nature of their offence. it was revealed that all six groups were found to be less extravert than a non-criminal control group. bartol suggested that this is because their sample was a very different cultural group then that investigated by eysenck which questions the generalisability of the criminal personality.

Question 38

outline one strength/limitation of eyesencks criminal personality - biological determinism

Answer 38

One strength of eyesencks theory is that it recognises personality may have a genetic basis and therefore fits well with other biological explanations. however the theory is an example of biological determinism as he suggests criminal behaviour is not chosen but it is caused by factors outside an individual‘s control such as their biology this means that the inherited nervous system governs the personality type and is the cause of criminal behaviour. this is problematic when it comes to explaining crime e.g. legal implications

Question 39

define level of moral reasoning

Answer 39

level of moral reasoning refers to the process by which an individual draws upon their own value to determine whether an action is right or wrong . kohlberg attempted to objectify this process by identifying different levels of reasoning based on people’s answers to moral dilemmas.

Question 40

define cognitive distortions

Answer 40

faulty biased and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves , ofher people and the world inaccurately usually negatively

Question 41

define hostile attribution bias

Answer 41

the tendency to judge ambiguous situations or the actions of others as agressive and or threatening when in reality they may not be

Question 42

define minimilisation (minimisation)

Answer 42

a type of deception that involves the downplaying the significance of an event or emotion . a common strategy when dealing with feelings of guilt.

Question 43

what are the two cognitive explanations

Answer 43

kohlbergs level of moral reasoning cognitive distortions

Question 44

outline kohlbergs level of moral reasoning as a cognitive explanation

Answer 44

kohlberg proposed that people’s decisions and judgements on issues in right and wrong can be summarised in a stage theory or moral development , the higher the stage the more sophisticated the reasoning. kohlberg basked his theory on people’s responses to a series of moral dilemmas such as the heinz dilemma. there are three levels.

Question 45

what are the three levels in kohlbergs level of motel reasoning

Answer 45

level 1 - preconventional morality level 2 - conventional morality level 3 - post conventional morality

Question 46

outline level 1 preconventional morality of kohlbergs level of moral reasoning

Answer 46

stage 1 - punishment orientation , obey rules and avoid punishment stage 2 - instrumental orientations , obey rules for personal gain

Question 47

outline level 2 conventional morality of kohlbergs level of moral reasoning

Answer 47

stage 3 - good boy good girl orientation , obey rules for approval stage 4 - maintenance of social order , obey rules to maintain social order

Question 48

outline level 3 postconventional morality of kohlbergs level of moral reasoning

Answer 48

stage 5- morality of contract and individual rights , obey rules if they are impartial , democratic rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others stage 6- morality of conscience - individual established their own rules in accordance with a personal set of ethical principles

Question 49

link kohlbergs level of moral reasoning to criminality

Answer 49

criminal offenders are more likely to be classified at the preconventionwl level of kohlbergs model (stages 1 and 2) whereas non criminals have generally progressed to the conventional level and behind . the preconvetional level is characterised by a need to avoid punishment and gain rewards and is associated with a less mature child like reasoning . both adults and teenager who reason at this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or to gain rewards 

Question 50

outline research into moral development and criminality

Answer 50

many studies suggest that criminals tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning. kohlberg using his moral dilemma technique found that a group of violent youths was significantly lower in their moral development than non-violent youths even after controlling for social background

Question 51

outline one strength of kohlbergs level of moral reasoning as a cognitive explanation - supporting theory

Answer 51

there is evidence supporting a link between level of moral reasoning and offending. palmer compared moral reasoning between 210 female nonoffenders 122 male nonoffenders and 126 convicted offenders using the socio-moral reflection measure short form. The offending group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-offending group. this is consistent with kohlbergs predictions.

Question 52

outline one limitation of kohlbergs level of moral reasoning - alternative theory

Answer 52

there are alternative theories from our reasoning for example Gibbs proposed a revised version of kohlbergs theory which included two levels of reasoning mature and immature which are equivalent to kohlbergs preconvetional and conventional levels. gibbs removed the post conventional level as he claimed it was biased towards western cultures and not representative of a natural maturational stage of development . this is supported by piagets theory of moral development which suggests that child like reasoning is self centred and egocentric which gives way to empathy and a concern for the needs of others as children get older

Question 53

outline one limitation of kohlbergs level of moral reasoning- varies based on the type of offence

Answer 53

the level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offence . reid found that individuals who commited crimes for financial gain such as robbery were more likely to show preconvetional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes such as assault whwre reasoning of any kind may not be evident. this suggests that the level of moral reasoning may only explain certain crimes for example those where offenders believe they have a good chance of evading punishment

Question 54

what are the two examples of cognitive distortions

Answer 54

hostile attribution bias and minimilisation

Question 55

outline how cognitive distortions are linked to the way criminal behaviour

Answer 55

cognitive distortions have been linked to the way criminals interpret behaviour of others and justify their own actions.

Question 56

outline hostile attribution bias

Answer 56

hostile attribution may mean that offenders misread non agreesive cues such as being looked at and this nah trigger a disproportionate often violent response . schonenberg presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions , violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive images as angry or hostile than a matched control group. the roots of this behaviour may lie in childhood dodge and frame showed children a videoclip of an ambiguous provocation , children who had been identified as agreessive and rejected prior to the study interpreted the situation as more hostile than those classed as non aggresive and accepted

Question 57

outline minimilisation

Answer 57

this is a type of deception that involves downplaying the significance of an event or emotion , a common strategy when dealing with guilt . this has been referred to as the euphemistic label. studies suggest that individuals who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimilisation . barbaree found among 26 imprisoned rapists , 54% denied they had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised fhe harm they caused to the victim. pollock reported that 35% of a sample of child molesters argued that their crime was non sexual just being affectionate

Question 58

outline one strength of cognitive distortions - practical application

Answer 58

cognitive distortions has practical application as it has proven beneficial in fhe treatment of criminal behaviour . the dominant approach in the rehabilitation of sex offenders is CBT, which helps establish a less distorted view of their actions . studies suggest that reduced incidence of denial and minimilisation highly correlated with reduced risk of reoffending.

Question 59

outline one limitation of cognitive distortions - descriptive rather than explanatory

Answer 59

this explanation of offending can be criticised for being descriptive rather than explanatory , for example it can show how hostile attribution bias can lead to offending behaviour , they may actually be after the fact theories . although they are usedul when predicting reoffending, they tend to not give us much insight into why the offender committed the crime in the first or why cognitive distortions take place. therefore it fails to establish a cause and effect relationship.

Question 60

one strength of minimilisation - supporting studies

Answer 60

there are studies that suggest individuals who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimilisation. for example barbaree found that among 26 imprisoned rapists , 54% denied they had committed an offence. this suggests that minimilisation is involved in offending behaviour. however this study lacks generalisability to all criminal offences as if onlh focuses on the sexual offences and not all crimes are sexual

Question 61

outline one strength of hostile attribution bias- supporting research

Answer 61

there is supporting research for hostile attribution bias , justye presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive images as angry or hostile than a matched control group . this suggests that the cognitive distortion or hostile attribution bias is involved in offending behaviour. however this study lacks generalisability to all criminal offences as if only focuses on violent offenders and not all crimes are violent

Question 62

define differential association theory

Answer 62

differential association theory is an explanation of offending which proposes that through interaction with others individuals learn the values , attitudes and techniques and motives for criminal behaviour

Question 63

outline the differential association theory to offending behaviour

Answer 63

differential association suggests that offending behaviour may be acquired in the same way as any other behaviour. through the process of learning. criminality arises from two factors - learner attitudes towards crime and learning of specific criminal acts. sutherland argued that if the number of pro-criminal (for) attitudes the person has , outweighed the number of anti-criminal attitudes they will go on to offend this theory suggests that it should be possible to mathematically predict how likely it is that an individual will commit crime if we havw knowledge. of the frequency , intensity and duration of which they have been exposed to deviant and non deviant norms and values

Question 64

outline the scientific basis of differential association theory

Answer 64

sutherland set himself a task to develop a set of scientific principles that could explain all those or offending his theory is designed to discriminate between individuals who become criminals and those who do not

Question 65

outline crime as a learner behaviour according to differential association theory

Answer 65

offending behaviour may be acquired through learning this occurs most often through interactions with significant others (family and peers) criminality = learned attitudes towards crime and learning of specific criminal acts

Question 66

outline pro criminal attitude as part of the differential association theory

Answer 66

if the number of pro criminal attitudes outweighs the number of anti criminal attitudes , an individual will go on to offend.

Question 67

outline learning criminal acts as part of differential association theory

Answer 67

individuals may also learn techniques for commiting crime , crime may breed amongst specific social groups in communities . this accounts for why so many convicts go on to re offend

Question 68

outline one strength of differential association theory - explains reoffending

Answer 68

this theory accounts for why so many convicts released from prison go on to reoffend . it is reasonable to assume that whilst inside inmates will learn specific techniques of offending from other more experienced criminals that they have put into practice upon their release. this learning may ocd ur through observational learning , and imitation or direct tuition from criminal peers

Question 69

outline one strength of differential association theory - accounts for crime in all members of society

Answer 69

differential association theory accounts for crime within all sectors of society . it can explain both working class crime such as robbery as well as white collar crime such as fraud. this increases the validity of the explanation of offending behaviour because it can be applied to all individuals

Question 70

outline one strength of differential association theory - realistic solution

Answer 70

differential association theory drew focus on the fact that dysfunctional social circumstances and environments may be more to blame for criminality than dysfunctional people . this approach may be more desirable because it offers a more realistic solution to the problem of crime eg education tackling issues in society. this is better then solutions provided eg through kohlbergs ehere punishment would be the solution.

Question 71

outline one limitation of differential association theory - not everyone commits crime

Answer 71

one limitation of differential association theory is that not everyone who is exposed to criminal influences goes on to commit crime . differential association theory does not account for this as it focuses on environmental determinism that w behaviour will occur because of an individuals environment . this explanation therefore does not account for free will and choice lm whether to offend

Question 72

outline one strength/ limitation of differential association theory - nurture

Answer 72

one limitation is thwt sutherland theory focuses ok the nurture wide of the nature nurture debate . it suggests that behaviour is learnt from those around us . this could therefore explain the observation thwt offending behaviour seems to run in families however family offending could also be explained genetically (e.g criminality is inherited) . this limits the ability of differential association theory to explain family criminality

Question 73

what are the two psychodynamic explanations for offending behaviour

Answer 73

inadequate superego maternal deprivation

Question 74

outline the inadequate superego as an explanation for offending behaviour

Answer 74

the psychodynamic explanation of offending behaviour sees the super ego which is the moral component of personality as crucial in explaining criminality. blackburn argues that if the superego is deficient then criminality is inevitable as the id (pleasure principle) is not properly controlled and we are going to give into our urges and impulses there are three types of inadequate super ego

Question 75

what are the three types of inadequate superego blackburn proposed

Answer 75

weak superego deviant superego overharsh superego

Question 76

outline weak superego

Answer 76

a weak super ego occurs when there is an absence of the same sex parent in the phallic stage . the child cannot identify with the same sex parent , the super ego is not fully formed and the child has a lack of understanding of the difference between right and wrong. this causes criminal behaviour as the superego does not punish the child through feelings of guilt , the child will then show criminal behaviour as the super ego does not hold them back

Question 77

outline deviant superego

Answer 77

the child identifies with their same sex parent but the parent is immoral or has immoral standards of behaviours . the child internalises morals that are not acceptable. the child does not see criminal behaviours in the same way as others and will not associate guilt with criminal behaviour

Question 78

outline overharsh superego

Answer 78

a healthy superego is firm and has rules of what behaviours are and are not acceptable but if these rules are broken the superego will be forgiving. the over harsh superego which will not be forgiving which increases guilt for one doing . the child will unconsciously seek opportunities where they will be reprimanded to reduce their sense of guilt leading to criminal behaviour to satisfy the super egos need for punishment

Question 79

outline one limitation of inadequate superego - gender bias

Answer 79

one limitation of inadequate superego is that an implicit assumption within freud’s theory is that girls develop w weaker superego than boys . this is because they do not experience castration anxiety . as a result their superego and morality is not realised to the same extent. the inadequate superego is effected by gender bias as it suggests that girls are more prone to criminal activity than boys. this could have potentially socially sensitive implications as girls may believe they are more prone to criminal behaviour

Question 80

outline one limitation of inadequate superego - contradictory evidence

Answer 80

there is very little evidence that children raised without a same sex parent are less law abiding as adults , or fail to develop a conscience. for example children raised without a same sex parent do not appear to be less law abiding than adults. this contradicts blackburn’s weak superego argument. this therefore limits the usefulness for this explanation for crime

Question 81

outline one limitation of inadequate superego - unconscious concept

Answer 81

superegos are an unconscious concept which means they suffer from lack of falsifiability. unconscious concepts within freudian therapy mean that implications towards crime are not open to empirical testing . in the absence of supporting evidence arguments such as the inadequate superego can only be judged on face value rather than their scientific worth. this leads to people treating them as pseudoscientific and may contribute littke to our understanding of crime or how to prevent it

Question 82

outline one limitation of inadequate superego - evidence could be explained in alternative ways

Answer 82

one limitation is that the evidence which the inadequate superego is using as supporting evidence could be explained in an alternative way. for example children raised by deviant parents themselves who commit crime themselves does not provide proof of the deviant superego. it could be that this finding is as w result of genetics or socialisation. this reduces the validity of the evidence supporting this explanation

Question 83

outline the maternal deprivation theory of criminal behaviour

Answer 83

bowlby argued that the ability to form meaningful relationships in adulthood was dependent upon the child forming a warm continuous relationship with the mother-figure. the maternal bond was seen as unique and superior to others and vital for the child’s well-being and development. failure to establish this meaningful bond in the first few years means the child will edperience a number of damaging and irreversible consequences in later life , as well as a personality type known as affectionless psychopathy. such maternally deprived individuals are likely to engage in acts of delinquency and cannot develop close relationships with others as they lack the necessary early experience to do so

Question 84

outline supporting study for maternal deprivation in offending

Answer 84

bowlbys 44 juvenile thieves study. he interviewed the thrived and their families and found that 14/44 showed personality and behavioural characteristics which could be classified as affectionless psychopathy. 12/14 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during infancy , only 2 in the control group had experienced early separation bowlby concluded that the effects of maternal deprivation caused affectionless and delinquent behaviour among juvenile thieves

Question 85

outline one limitation of maternal deprivation - methodological issues

Answer 85

one limitation of maternal deprivation is that there are methodological issues regarding bowlbys research l/ for example he has been accused of reseqrcher bias as his preconceptions of what he expected to find may have influenced the responses of his interviews . this means that the study itself may not be valid which in turn reduces the validity of explanations for offending behaviour

Question 86

outline one limitation of maternal deprivation - contradictory evidence

Answer 86

there is evidence contradicting bowlbys 44 thieves study . lewis interviewed 500 young people wnd found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of future offending and the ability to form close relationships in adolescence . this suggests that maternal deprivation as an explanation of offending is not supported

Question 87

outline one limitation of maternal deprivation- correlation not causation

Answer 87

one limitation is that research into maternal deprivation can be questioned . just because bowlby found that there was a relationship between children who experienced frequent of prolonged separation from their mothers and commiting crime in later life , does not mean that deprivation is caused by delinquency. the link is only correlational / this is because there are third variables that can impact for example having a weak super ego which in turn leads to more crime

Question 88

outline one limitation of maternal deprivation - deterministic

Answer 88

the maternal deprivation can be critiqued for showing psychic determinism. it believes that criminal behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts which we cannot control e.g deprivation from a mother figure . it does not take into accoung that individuals havw free will and could actively choose whether or not to partake in criminal behaviour regardless of their childhood experiences