issues and debates AI

Question 1

define free will

Answer 1

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces.

e.g Humanism as it’s the only approach that accepts people have free will and are self-determining.

Question 2

define determinism

Answer 2

The view that an individual’s behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces.

Question 3

define hard determinism

Answer 3

Implies that free will is not possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal or external factors beyond our control

Question 4

define soft determinism

Answer 4

Argues all human behaviour has a cause but behaviour can be determined by our conscious choice in the absence of coercion, as well

Question 5

define biological determinism

Answer 5

The belief that behaviour is caused by biological influences that we cannot control.
Examples - Role of serotonin in OCD. Dopamine hypothesis as an explanation for schizophrenia.

Question 6

define environmental determinism

Answer 6

The belief that behaviour is caused by features of the environment that we cannot control.
Example - Behaviourist explanation of phobias.

Question 7

define psychic determinism

Answer 7

• The belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.
  Examples - Oedipus and Electra complexes.

Question 8

outline scientific emphasis on causal explanations - determinism

Answer 8

Determinism is the idea that there is no control or choice over our actions and that our behaviour is determined by another source.
Science aims to find the cause of things. It is based on the principle that every event has a cause which can be explained using general laws.
It is therefore deterministic.
Psychology wants to be a science so it too has to employ the scientific method. e.g theory , hypothesis and observable methods.
If one factor changes a behaviour, whilst all other factors are controlled, then the original factor must be responsible.
It has determined the behaviour.
An IV is manipulated to observe the causal effect on the DV.
Determinism is about causation.
Behaviour has been caused by something that is outside of the individual’s control.
This allows us to control and predict human behaviour.

Question 9

outline one strength of determinism - constistent

Answer 9

Determinism is consistent with the aims of science.
The hard determinist view says that human behaviour is orderly and obeys laws.
Psychology is therefore placed on an equal footing with other more established sciences.
This view means that human behavior can be predicted and controlled which has led to the development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefitted many.

Question 10

outline one strength of free will - support/ face validity

Answer 10

Everyday experience gives the impression that we are constantly exercising free will.
The choices that we make on any given day are believed to be made by ourselves.
This gives face validity to the concept of free will.
Research suggests that those who have an internal locus of control tend to be more mentally healthy, suggesting that even thinking that we have free will (even if we do not), may have a positive impact on behaviour

Question 11

outline one limitation of determinism - legal system implications

Answer 11

One limitation of determinism is the position of the legal system on responsibility.
In a court of law, offenders are held responsible for their actions. The suggestion is usually that the defendant exercised free will in committing the crime.
This suggests that in the real world, determinist arguments do not work.

Question 12

outline one limitation of free will - brain scan counteracting evidence

Answer 12

Brain scan evidence does not support the concept of free will.
Libet et al (1983) instructed participants to choose a random moment to flick their wrist while he measured activity in their brain. Participants had to say when they felt the conscious will to move. Libet found that the unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came around half a second before the participant consciously felt they had decided to move.
This may be interpreted as meaning that even our most basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware of them.

Question 13

outline one strength for free will/ determinism - soft determinsim

Answer 13

Approaches which adopt a soft determinism point of view may be more appropriate in explaining behaviour.
For example, Social Learning Theory says that although environmental factors are key in learning, we are free to choose who or what to attend to and when to perform certain behaviours.
This suggests that an interactionist approach may provide us with the best compromise in the free will-determinism debate.

Question 14

define idiographic approach

Answer 14

the idiographic approach focuses on the individual and emphasises the unique personal experience humans have. people are studied independently and their own experiences , motivations and values are considered.

Question 15

are general laws formulated using idiographic approach

Answer 15

no laws are formulated using this approach or generalisations to others made. usually no attempt is made to compare individuals to larger groups , standards or norms.

Question 16

what research methods are used in the idiographic approach

Answer 16

qualitative research methods such as case studies , unstructured interviews and thermatic analysis are favoured. this allows an in depth insight into human behaviour and allows the richness of human experience to be described from a unique point of view

Question 17

give an example of an approach which is idiographic

Answer 17

humanistic approach . maslow and rogers were only interested in documenting the conscious experience of the individual or the self. it is anti-scientific wanting to look at indivdual experiences rather than creating general laws of behaviour.

Question 18

define the nomothetic approach

Answer 18

the nomothetic approach wants to estabish general laws based on the study of large groups of people using statistical techniques to analyse data.

Question 19

are general laws formulated using the nomothetic approach

Answer 19

yes , the general laws provide a benchmark against which people can be compared , classified and measured . this allows future behaviour to be predicted and controlled

Question 20

what type of research methods are used in the nomothetic approach

Answer 20

quantitative research methods such as experiments , correlations and psychometric testing are favoured by nomothetic researchers . such methods are regarded as scientific . they would involve large numbers of people to establish ways in which people are similar and different from each other. this approach is the main approach within scientifically orientated psychology

Question 21

give an example of an approach which is nomothetic

Answer 21

behaviourist approach

the response of rats was used to develop the laws of learning , cognitive psychologists infer the structure and process of human memory by looking at large numbers of people completing lab experiments.

Question 22

give an example of an approach which is both idiographic and nomothetic

Answer 22

the psychodynamic approach is idiographic as case studies were used to detail peoples lives , however universal laws such as personality development and the psychosexual stages were also developed which fits the nomothetic approach.

Question 23

outline one strength/limitation of the idiographic approach - support

Answer 23

The idiographic approach can complement the nomothetic approach by providing support or challenging general laws of behaviour.
For example, the study of KF showed that there were two different types of short-term memory, challenging the multi-store model which said that it was a unitary store.
However, the idiographic approach uses unscientific methods to find out in-depth information about an individual, for example case studies.
The methods tend not to be scientific, so the conclusions that are drawn regarding individuals often rely on subjective interpretation of the researcher so they are open to bias.

Question 24

outline one strength/ limitation of the nomothetic approach - scientific

Answer 24

Nomothetic research tends to be more scientific as: testing is under standardised conditions; data sets providing group averages are used; statistical analysis can occur; prediction and control are used.
For example, in the field of IQ testing psychologists have established that the average IQ is 100 and that the normal range for IQ is between 70 and 130.
However, the preoccupation to focus on general laws and predicting and controlling behaviour can mean that the whole person is lost.
Knowing that there is a 1% probability that someone will develop schizophrenia does not tell us what it is like to suffer from the illness. This means that the richness of human experience is overlooked.

Question 25

outline one strength of idiographic and nomothetic approach - complimentary

Answer 25

Rather than seeing idiographic and nomothetic approaches as mutually exclusive, it is possible to consider the issue from both perspectives. For example, Shaffer’s stages of attachment are nomothetic suggesting that all children go through the stages in the same order. But, Bowlby’s 44 thieves study is idiographic as it was based on a series of detailed case studies showing what can happen during early development. Considering both approaches together will provide rich, detailed descriptions of human behaviour as well as the explanation of such behaviour within the framework of general laws.

Question 26

define ethical guidelines

Answer 26

ethical guidelines are a set of principles set out by the BPS to help psychologist behave with honesty and integrity. These include protecting participants from harm, ensuring that they have given informed consent, reminding them of their right to withdraw.

Question 27

define ethical issues

Answer 27

ethical issues arise when a conflict exists between the rights of the particpants in research studies and the goals of the researchers to produce authentic , valid and worthwhile data. ). Ethical issues arise when researchers have broken one or more of the ethical guidelines.

Question 28

define ethical implications

Answer 28

the impact that psychological research may have in terms of the rights of other people , especially participants . this also includes at a societal level , influencing public policy nd/or in the way which certain groups of people are regarded. Ethical implications therefore consider the impact or consequences that psychological research has on the rights of other people in a wider context, not just the participants taking part in the research. These implications can be positive or negative

Question 29

define social sensitivity

Answer 29

social sensitivity are studies in which there are potential consequences or implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research

Question 30

what study is the example of "ethical implications of studies"

Answer 30

milgrams obedience study

Question 31

outline milgrams obedience study in regards to "ethical implications of studies"

Answer 31

Milgram’s (1963) research, you need to consider whether the ‘ends justify the means’. The participants were deceived and were unable to give fully informed consent. The experiment also caused significant distress e.g three full blown seizures, and the participants were told or coerced to continue against their will. On the other hand, the participants were debriefed after the experiment and a follow-up interview took place a year later. The outcome of these follow-up interviews suggested that the participants had suffered no long-term effects. The research also showed that the German’s were not “different” and therefore may have helped to change the perception of those who followed Hitler as “evil”. It could therefore be argued that it had positive ethical implications as it has been useful in reducing the negative labels attached to a nation. It has also helped us to understand how people can be made to obey.

Question 32

what theory is the example of "ethical implications of theories"

Answer 32

bowlbys monotropic theory

Question 33

outline bowlbys monotropic theory as an example of "ethical implications of theories"

Answer 33

There are not any ethical issues with Bowlby’s theory itself as its not a study therefore participants arent directly involved. Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment suggests that children form one special attachment bond, usually with their mother, which must take place within a critical period. Bowlby also suggested that this attachment bond affects their future relationships through an internal working model. The theory has contributed to the development of child care practices which is a positive ethical implication e.g key workers in nurserys . However, it has also encouraged the view that the mother’s place is at home with her children. This is a negative implication of his theory as it can make mothers’ feel guilty for wanting to return to work following childbirth. it also devalues the role of the father

Question 34

what study is used to demonstrate social sensitivity

Answer 34

milgrams obedience study Bowlby’s monotropic study

Question 35

outline social sensitivity in milgrams obedience study

Answer 35

On second examination, it could be argued that Milgram’s is socially sensitive. The findings of the study could be used to make people obey orders that they do not want to follow. This could have severe ethical implications.

Question 36

what theory is used for social sensitivity

Answer 36

bowlbys monotropic theory

Question 37

outline social sensitivity in bowlbys monotropic theory

Answer 37

Bowlby’s theory is very sensitive. It could be used to make mothers stay at home out of guilt and fear of being judged by others.

Question 38

what did sieber and stanley identify as the four aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research.

Answer 38

Sieber and Stanley (1988) identified four aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical implications in socially sensitive research. These points should ideally be considered before research is carried out. 1 - the research question 2- the methodology used 3- the institutional context 4- interpretation and application of findings

Question 39

outline the research question as part of sieber and stanleys four aspects in research

Answer 39

The Research Question: The researcher must consider their research question carefully. Asking questions like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence inherited?’ may be damaging to members of a particular group

Question 40

outline the methodology used as part of sieber and stanleys four aspects in research

Answer 40

The Methodology Used: The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the participant's and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if someone admits to committing a crime, or to having unprotected sex if they are HIV positive, should the researcher maintain confidentiality?

Question 41

outline the institutional context used as part of sieber and stanleys four aspects in research

Answer 41

The Institutional Context: The researcher should be mindful of how the data is going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how do they intend to use the findings?

Question 42

outline the interpretation and application of findings used as part of sieber and stanleys four aspects in research

Answer 42

the researcher needs to consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real-world. Could their data or results be used to inform policy? Could the research be seen as giving ‘scientific’ credence to prejudice and discrimination? What could happen if the research was used for the wrong purpose?

Question 43

outline one strength of ethical implications - positive outcomes

Answer 43

Socially sensitive research can benefit society. It can promote greater sensitivity and understanding of underrepresented groups and issues. For example, the effect that culture bias can have on the diagnosis of schizophrenia with regards to auditory hallucinations experienced by African and West Indian individuals. This helps reduce prejudice and encourage acceptance demonstrating there are positive outcomes of socially sensitive research.

Question 44

outline one strength of ethical implications - legal support

Answer 44

Socially sensitive research can prevent miscarriages of justice within the legal system. Research into the unreliability of eyewitness testimony specifically the case of Ronald Cotton shows that socially sensitive research plays a valuable role in society and is a positive consequence. This is despite the fact that the research may have had a negative impact on those individuals who had been eyewitnesses in trials.

Question 45

outline one limitation of ethical implications - support discriminatory practices

Answer 45

Socially sensitive research has been used to support discriminatory practices. In America during the 1920’s and 1930’s, a large number of US states approved laws that led to the compulsory sterilisation of citizens that were deemed to be “feeble-minded” and were drains on society. This was based on research from psychology and science that had suggested such people were “unfit to breed”. This shows that socially sensitive research has negative impacts as it has been used inappropriately to “support” discriminatory practices.

Question 46

outline one strength of ethical implications - reflexivity

Answer 46

The realisation that there are issues regarding the ethical implications of socially sensitive research has meant that researchers are more reflexive. This includes thinking more about what the research findings are likely to be used for. As a result, it can make researcher’s take more responsibility for their findings and ensure that the work that they do, does not lead to abuse or discrimination.

Question 47

outline one limitation of ethical implications - political issues

Answer 47

It is important that psychologists are free to carry out whatever research seems important to them. It is problematic if governments start passing laws to prohibit certain kinds of research, for example race-related research, due to there being issues of social sensitivity. There is a real danger that research will be stopped for political rather than for ethical reasons. Researchers may just need to be mindful that the benefits of the socially sensitive research must outweigh the costs.