Form and Function Flashcards

Question

what are tissues?

Answer 1

groups of similar cells with a common function

Answer 2

* lining * covering * protection * absorption * filtration * secretion

Answer 3

to receive and conduct electrochemical signals (irritability and conductivity)

Answer 4

* most abundant and widely distributed * protecting, supporting and binding together body tissues

Answer 5

* highly specialised cells contract to produce movement * skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle types

Answer 6

Structure made up of more than one tissue type that performs a specific function in the body * Heart * Skin * Lungs * Stomach * Kidneys

Answer 7

* A group of organs cooperating to accomplish a common purpose. * There are 11 organ systems in the human body, each with a unique function. * Remember though, that, whilst being separate systems, they operate together in real life, not in isolation

Answer 8

protective function, insulates and cushions

Answer 9

body protection and motion

Answer 10

contraction, responsible for virtually all body movement

Answer 11

contraction, responsible for virtually all body movement

Answer 12

control and communication

Answer 13

coordinates and directs cellular activity

Answer 14

transportation of oxygen,nutrients, waste, and hormones

Answer 15

fluid transport, body defence,and disease resistance

Answer 16

exchange gases to supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.

Answer 17

converts food into the raw materials that build and fuel the body (ingestion,digestion, absorption, and defecation)

Answer 18

filter fluids, excrete wastes

Answer 19

to produce offspring

Answer 20

* Maintaining Boundaries * Movement * Responsiveness * Digestion * Metabolism * Excretion * Reproduction * Growth

Answer 21

When describing the human body, we must be precise,indicating specific locations, both inside and outside the body, sometimes giving details about subsections of tissues, organs, cells etc * Anatomists have generated and continually updated/perfected standard atlases of the human body. * Official Index of Anatomical Terminology

Answer 22

* Body erect * Head, eyes, toes directed forward * Limbs at sides of body * Palms directed forward * When describing the body, we always assume this is the standard position of the body so everyone knows precisely what we mean

Answer 23

* Median = seperates body into right and left * Frontal (coronal) = vertical, perpendicular to median * Horizontal (transverse) = parallel to floor,perpendicular to median, coronal * Sagittal = vertical, parallel to median

Answer 24

separates the body into Anterior and Posterior parts

Answer 25

separates body into Right and Left parts

Answer 26

separates the body intoSuperior and Inferior parts

Answer 27

any plane parallel to the median plane

Answer 28

*Medial = closer to median plane * Lateral = further from median plane * Anterior (ventral) = towards front of body * Posterior (dorsal) = towards back of body * Superior (cephalic) = towards head * Inferior (caudal) = towards bottom of feet * Superficial = towards surface of body, part * Deep = towards center of body, part * Proximal = nearer origin or attachment * Distal = further from origin or attachment

Answer 29

decreasing angle with frontal plane

Answer 30

increasing the angle with the frontal plane

Answer 31

moving away from the sagittal plane

Answer 32

moving towards the sagittal plane

Answer 33

moving forwards along a surface

Answer 34

moving backwards along a surface

Answer 35

raising a structure

Answer 36

lowering a structure

Answer 37

movement around an axis of a bone towards the midline

Answer 38

movement around an axis of a bone away from the midline

Answer 39

placing palm backwards along a surface

Answer 40

combined movements of flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial and lateral rotation circumscribe a cone

Answer 41

bringing tips of fingers and thumb together as in picking up something up

Answer 42

towards the head

Answer 43

towards the feet

Answer 44

from the side

Answer 45

towards the middle

Answer 46

towards the attachment of a limb

Answer 47

towards fingers and toes

Answer 48

towards or from the front

Answer 49

towards/from the back

Answer 50

towards the palm of the hand

Answer 51

towards/on the side of the foot

Answer 52

osteoporosis autoimmune diseases depression

Answer 53

* Possibly linked to lower production of serotonin(neurotransmitter) in women * Sex-based differences also present in incidence and expression of schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder,panic disorder, other mental illnesses

Answer 54

* Societal - lifestyle/behavior - Environmental - Healthcare * Genetic - Linked to x- or y-chromosome * Effects of the sex steroids - Androgens, Estrogens, Progestins - All present in both male and female - Estrogens & androgens physiologically important in both males and females

Answer 55

* Prenatal development -Sexual differentiation * Maturation: child, adolescent, young adult * Variation with menstrual cycle in women * Pregnancy * Abrupt drop in estrogen & progesterone at menopause * Gradual decline in testosterone with aging - Both men and women

Answer 56

* Well-known differences: in comparison with women, males have - Greater bone mass - Greater muscle mass - Lower percent body fat * Males and females also have structural differences in - Heart - Brain - Gastrointestinal system

Answer 57

* Cardiovascular * Renal

Answer 58

* Blood Pressure - 5-10 mmHg higher in men than women - Difference abolished after menopause * Heart rate lower in men than age-matched women * Some intervals in ECG longer in women

Answer 59

* Kidney filtration rate - Slightly lower in young women than age-matched men - May decline more rapidly with aging in men than women

Answer 60

* lipid metabolism * drug metabolism

Answer 61

* Leading cause of death in men and women * Heart disease starts 10 years later in women than men * Stroke more common in women than men * Multiple sex-based differences in co-morbidities, symptoms, progression, outcomes

Answer 62

* Men have significantly greater left ventricular mass and chamber size than women. * Women have a lower resting blood pressure and higher resting heart rate and exhibit reduced tolerance to shifting posture or sudden changes in position. * Similarly, while blood pressure is lower in premenopausal women than in men, blood pressure gradually rises in postmenopausal women to levels equivalent to those of men.

Answer 63

1. Chest discomfort or uncomfortable pressure,fullness, squeezing or pain in the center of the chest that lasts longer than a few minutes, or comes and goes. 2. Spreading pain to one or both arms, back, jaw, orstomach. 3. Cold sweats and nausea.

Answer 64

Women often don’t experience the “hallmarks” (only 30%),instead: * shortness of breath, * nausea * vomiting * sleeplessness * back pain or jaw pain * a feeling of generalized weakness, fatigue in weeks prior to Acute MI!

Answer 65

* The average female has a higher percentage of body fat (5-10%) and lower muscle mass compared with the average male. * Women metabolise carbohydrates like glucose at varying rates depending upon their phase of the menstrual cycle. * Females burn more fat and less carbohydrate and protein compared with males during endurance exercise

Answer 66

* Men have larger lungs, wider airways, andgreater lung diffusion capacity than women,even when these values are normalized to height. * An important consequence of this structural difference is that in contrast to healthy young men, maximal exercise capacity may be limited by pulmonary capacity in women,especially as they age.

Answer 67

* Differences in pain threshold? * In adults, men generally possess brains about 11-12% heavier and heads around 2% larger than women. * There is a claim that women excel in specific language abilities, while men tend to perform better in certain spatial skills.

Answer 68

* Newborn boys typically have brains and head circumferences that are 12-20% and 2% larger, respectively, than girls. However, when considering brain size relative to body weight, there's minimal difference between them

Answer 69

Two parts of the hypothalamus, the preoptic area and the suprachiasmatic nucleus, exhibit notable distinctions between male and female brains. Preoptic Area: This region, associated with mating behavior, is larger in volume, cross-sectional area, and cell count in males of various species, including humans. This difference becomes noticeable after the age of 4. Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: Responsible for circadian rhythms and reproduction cycles, this area differs in shape between men and women. It appears spherical in males and more elongated in females

Answer 70

* Some researchers argue that the levels of hormones in the womb can influence the way we develop not only physically, but also in terms of our sexual preferences. * They say a marker of the hormone levels present in the womb when we were babies is finger length. * Still controversial and does not account for everyone

Answer 71

Limbs and Digits: Men typically have slightly thicker and longer limb and digit bones, while women often have larger pelvic bones relative to body size. Rib Cage and Teeth: Women generally have narrower rib cages, smaller teeth, and less angular mandibles. Cranial Features: Women typically possess less pronounced cranial features, such as brow ridges and the occipital protuberance (the small bump at the back of the skull). Hip Bones: The most noticeable difference lies in hip bones, primarily related to the reproductive process and likely influenced by biological sexual selection. Smaller Differences: Additionally, there are several smaller distinctions between male and female human skeletons.

Answer 72

* Sex determination is only really possible with adolescent or adult skeletons because there are far fewer sexual differences in children before puberty. * One of the common ways to determine sex issuing the size of the bones; males tend to have larger bones than females. * Males also tend to have larger areas forcmuscle attachment

Answer 73

Pelvis is a good marker as it often survives in large pieces after death but this still isn't a full-proof way of determining gender.

Answer 74

* The greater sciatic notch is also wider in females, usually more than 68 degrees for females and less for males. * The acetabulum, where the head of the femur meets the pubicbone, is typically larger and deeper in males than females. * The sacrum is straighter in females and more curved in males. The space in the middle of the pelvic bone (the pelvic inlet) islarger in women to facilitate birthing.

Answer 75

* The cranium, or skull, is another useful bone for sexdetermination. * The chin of males tends to be more square and tends to come toa point in the middle on females. * The frontal bone (forehead) of males tends to be slanted back and on females it tends to be more rounded. * Males also tend to have brow ridges above the eyes more than females.

Answer 76

Training recommendations often exhibit bias against women because they were initially developed based on all-male trials. This bias has been attributed to concerns about controlling for the menstrual cycle and the perception that females may be less willing to undergo invasive procedures like muscle biopsies. In reality, females are frequently willing participants in studies involving muscle biopsies and similar minor procedures. This bias likely stems from cultural biases and historical male dominance in the field of science. It's now evident that women are not as physically limited as once believed and can often perform at levels that rival or even surpass men

Answer 77

Interestingly, females might actually have a natural advantage in ultra-endurance sports when compared to males. In a field study, when performance times were matched at a 56 km distance, females out performed males at the 90 km distance. Further analysis has revealed that males tend to outperform females at distances up to 42 km, but there's a growing performance advantage for females beyond 66 km. In another instance, equally trained males and females demonstrated similar performance at 42 km, but females surpassed males at the 90 km distance. It's worth noting that women were only permitted to participate in the Olympic Marathon starting in 1984, highlighting the historical biases and evolving understanding of gender differences in endurance sport

Answer 78

* Cadavers * Histology & Microscopy * Biopsy * Scanning techniques * X rays * Anthropometry * Endoscopes * Ultrasound

Answer 79

* Body embalmed so structures are preserved. * Allows 3D visualisation of structures in place. * Requires little technology. * Shows the variation that occurs inreality. * Can study surface and deep features * Good training for surgery or biomedical disciplines * biomedical disciplines. Expensive to maintain and some skill required to do a dissection properly

Answer 80

* Involves measuring distances/lengths/diameters of body parts. * Measure skin folds * Can work out body fat content etc

Answer 81

* Basically a flexible camera into the esophagus * Usually needs sedation/anaesthesia * Quite safe

Answer 82

fresh tissue is colourless and squishy

Answer 83

* Fresh tissue is colourless & squishy. * They need to undergo substantial alteration before being ready to be viewed under a microscope. * There are 4 steps in tissue preparation: 1) Fixation stabilizes and preserves the tissue. 2) Embedding converts the tissue into a solid form which can be sliced ("sectioned") 3) Sectioning (slicing) provides the very thin specimens needed for microscopy. 4) Staining provides visual contrast and may help identify specific tissue components

Answer 84

Artifacts. At each step of tissue preparation artifactscan be produced by altering or distorting the natural appearance of cells

Answer 85

* Light microscope * Transmission Electron Microscope * Scanning Electron Microscope

Answer 86

* Identify stain used * Identify cells, nuclei, extracellular space * Identify tissue types and cell types in the tissue * For each cell type – determine size (How?),shape (describe using histological terms –cuboidal/squamous etc) ,staining properties. * Identify extracellular material.

Answer 87

in 1895, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered an unknowntype of radiation. He called it “X-rays.”

Answer 88

they are easy to use, images can be quite clear and they are used routinely

Answer 89

they arent good for imaging soft tissues and are dangerous during pregnancys

Answer 90

* Lower dose of ionizing radiation * More sensitive film material * Digital image sensors and processing

Answer 91

* Low contrast Can use digital contrast enhancement to avoid taking a new picture and exposing the patient toan extra dose of radiation. * Hidden objects (occlusion)X-ray images are “shadow” images. Some materials are opaque under visible light, but translucent to X-rays. Some materials, like lead,completely block X-rays.

Answer 92

CT scanner - density of x-ray MRI - density and structure of protons Ultrasound - variations of acoustic impedance Scintigraphy - density of injected isotopes

Answer 93

* Field of view – will you get a decent picture? * Radiation to patient and to operator * Functional or anatomical imaging - neurological activity, blood flow, cardiac activity *Consider what it’s best at for - bone, soft tissue, foetus, surface/deep tumours,etc * Clinical or scientific use? - diagnosis, surgical, navigation

Answer 94

Ultrasound scans use high frequency sound waves to produce an image and do not expose the individual to radiation. The procedure is painless and safe as well as being cheap and easy. However, sometimes the images are difficult to interpret for the beginner!

Answer 95

Abdominal ultrasound is a scanning technique used to image the interior of the abdomen

Answer 96

* An ultrasound machine creates images that allow various organs in the body to be examined. * The machine sends out high-frequency sound waves, which reflect off body structures. *A computer receives these reflected waves and uses them to create a picture.

Answer 97

Unlike with an x-ray, there is no ionizing radiation exposure with this test.

Answer 98

A clear, water-based conducting gel is applied to the skin over the area being examined to help with the transmission of the soundwaves.

Answer 99

A handheld probe called a transducer is then moved over the area being examined

Answer 100

* A CT or CAT scan (computed tomography) is a much more sensitive imaging technique than x-ray, allowing high definition not only of the bony structures, but of the soft tissues. * Clear images of organs such as the brain, muscles, joint structures, veins and arteries, as well as anomalies like tumours and hemorrhages may be obtained with or without the injection of contrasting dye

Answer 101

they can take data and reconstruct to give views from different planes this is really useful for seeing inside complex structures like the skull where you can’t be too invasive or want to know where to put your keyhole instruments This is because it can take single slice images and make them into a 3D model

Answer 102

the patient goes through a narrow tube that moves the patient through a tunnel where radio waves then pass through the patient to create a 3D image of the internal structures this method is safer for pregnant women

Answer 103

MRI uses powerful magnets and radio waves. The MRI scanner contains the magnet. The magnetic field produced by an MRI is about 10 thousand times greater than the earth's The magnetic field forces hydrogen atoms in the body to line up in acertain way (similar to how the needle on a compass moves when you hold it near a magnet). When radio waves are sent toward the lined-up hydrogen atoms, they bounce back, and a computer records the signal. Different types of tissues send back different signals. For example, healthy tissue sends back a slightly different signal than cancerous tissue Because the magnet is very, very strong, certain types of metal can cause significant errors, called artifacts, in the images.

Answer 104

Single MRI images are called slices. The images can be stored on a computer or printed on film

Answer 105

The cardiovascular and respiratory systems function in an integrated manner. Together they ensure access to the oxygen for every single cell of the body, and also allow disposing of the waste product, carbon dioxide

Answer 106

During exercise working muscle requires more oxygen to increase an aerobic metabolism required for generation of energy. The respiratory and cardiovascular systems must adapt to meet that demand

Answer 107

External respiration: movement of gasses between environment and the body’s cells

Answer 108

intracellular reaction of O2 with various molecules to produce CO2, H2O and energy (ATP)

Answer 109

nose - air enters the body where cilia and mucus trap particles and moisten and warm said air pharynx - the air then moves down the pharynx/throat which is shared with the digestive system epiglottis - the small flap of tissue folds over the trachea and prevents food from entering it when you swallow larynx - the voice box: where all your vocal chords vibrate to produce sound trachea - the air moves down from the pharynx towards your lungs through the trachea which is made of stiff rings of cartilidge which support and protect it bronchus - air moves from the trachea into the bronchi which lead inside the lungs lung - the main organs of respiration. they are soft and spongey texture is due to the many hollow sacs that compose them

Answer 110

the trachea branches into two bronchi, one to each lung. each bronchus branches 22 more times, finally terminating in a cluster of alveoli

Answer 111

the alveoli are composed of type 1 cells for gas exchange and type 2 cells that synthesize surfactant. alveolar macrophages ingest foreign material that reaches the alveoli each cluster of alveoli are surrounded by elastic fibres and a network of capillaries

Answer 112

Occurs because the thoracic cavity changes volume * Inspiration uses external intercostals and diaphragm (hence the vital function of skeletal muscles) * Expiration is passive at rest, but uses internal intercostals and abdominals during severe respiratory load * Breathing rate is 10-20 breaths / minute at rest,40 - 45 at maximum exercise in adults

Answer 113

the right dome the left dome the right crus the left crus

Answer 114

at rest the diaphragm is relaxed diaphragm contracts, thoracic volume increases diaphragm relaxes, thoracic. volume decreases

Answer 115

"pump handle" motion increases anterior-posterior dimension of rib cage "bucket handle" motion increases lateral dimension of rib cage

Answer 116

* chest expands * diaphragm contracts *

Answer 117

* chest contracts * diaphragm relaxes

Answer 118

* Breathing 500 ml 12 times per minuteaverages to respiratory volume of 6L/min * However, the rate at which alveolar air is renewed, rate of alveolar ventilation, is lower due to the effect of dead space * VA = Freq x (VT – VD)– VA - alveolar ventilation L/min, VT– tidal volume, VD – dead space * VA = 12 x (500 ml – 150 ml) = 4.2L/min * Alveolar ventilation is one of the major determinants of the concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli

Answer 119

* To replace half of the gas in alveoli takes approximately 17 seconds * The slow replacement of alveolar air is of physiological importance as it prevents sudden fluctuations of gas concentration in the blood

Answer 120

Airways connect lungs to the environment via about 20-30 branched generations * Alveolar surface area for gas exchange is about half the area of a tennis court * Pulmonary circulation is a high-flow, low-pressure system * Capillary surface area for gas exchange in periphery exceeds that for alveoli

Answer 121

* Increased work is initially matched by increased ventilation * At low work rates, extra ventilation achieved largely by increased tidal volume * As work continues to increase, breathing rate begins to increase, and tidal volume increases more.

Answer 122

The cardiovascular system consists of two circuits: the pulmonary circulation, from the right ventricle to the lungs and then to the left atrium; and the systemic circulation, from the left ventricle to all peripheral organs and tissues and then to the right atrium

Answer 123

Arteries carry blood away from the heart, and veins carry blood toward the heart

Answer 124

In the systemic circuit, the large artery leaving the left heart is the aorta, and the large veins emptying into the right heart are the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. The analogous vessels in the pulmonary circulation are the pulmonary trunk and the four pulmonary veins

Answer 125

The microcirculation consists of the vessels between arteries and veins: the arterioles, capillaries, and venules

Answer 126

The atrioventricular (AV) valves prevent flow from the ventricles back into the atria

Answer 127

The pulmonary and aortic valves prevent back flowfrom the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle and fromthe aorta into the left ventricle

Answer 128

Cardiac muscle cells are joined by gap junctions that permit action potentials to be conducted from cell to cell

Answer 129

The myocardium also contains specialised muscle cells that constitute the conducting system of the heart,initiating the cardiac action potentials and speeding their spread through the heart.

Answer 130

* Membrane of excitable cells is “polarized” (see Figure)* What is the cause of polarization? * Polarization in excitable cells can change rapidly and transiently (depolarization and repolarization)

Answer 131

* Action potential involves a swift shift in membrane potential, encompassing depolarization and subsequent repolarization. This local event propagates through the cell membrane, where depolarization in one area excites adjacent portions. * The unequal distribution of Na+, K+, and Ca2+ ions across the cell membrane is crucial. Na+ and Ca2+ ions move outward, while K+ ions move inward, establishing an essential imbalance. * Ion passage through the cell membrane is limited to ion channels. These channels, particularly voltage-gated sodium, calcium, and potassium channels, play a pivotal role in controlling the permeability of the cardiac cell membrane to specific ions. * The initiation of the action potential involves the sequential opening of voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels. This allows a rapid influx of Na+ and Ca2+, resulting in an increase in positive charge on the inner side of the cell membrane, causing depolarization. * The depolarization event triggers a cascade of changes. Sodium and calcium channels subsequently close, while potassium channels open. This leads to the outward diffusion of K+ ions, contributing to the repolarization of the cell membrane.

Answer 132

* Cardiac muscle cells must undergo action potentials for contraction to occur. * The rapid depolarization in atrial and ventricular cells(other than those in the conducting system) is due to increase in cell membrane permeability to sodium and calcium. * Following the initial rapid depolarization, the membrane remains depolarized (the plateau phase) almost the entire duration of the contraction because of prolonged entry of calcium into the cell through slow plasma-membrane channels

Answer 133

* Calcium, mainly released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum(SR), functions as the excitation- contraction coupler in cardiac muscle, as in skeletal muscle, by combining with troponin. * The major signal for calcium release from the SR is calcium entering through voltage-gated calcium channels in the plasma membrane during the action potential (Calcium Induced Calcium Release). * The amount of calcium released does not usually saturated troponin binding sites, and so the number of active cross bridges can be increased if cytosolic calcium is increased still further. * Cardiac muscle cannot undergo summation of contractions because it has a very long refractory period

Answer 134

* The SA node generates the current that leads to depolarization of all other cardiac muscle cells. * The SA node manifests a pacemaker potential, which brings its membrane potential to threshold and initiates an action potential. * The impulse spreads from the SA node throughout both atria and to the AV node, where a small delay occurs.The impulse then passes in turn into the bundle of His,right and left bundle branches, Purkinje fibres, and nonconducting-system ventricular fibres. * The ECG is recorded as compound action of these events via extracellular electrodes on the body surface.

Answer 135

* The cardiac cycle is divided into systole (contraction)and diastole (relaxation). * The amount of blood in the ventricles just before systole is known as the end diastolic volume (EDV). The volume remaining after ejection is the end-systolic volume ESV), and the volume ejected is the stroke volume. * Pressure changes in the systemic and pulmonary circulations have similar patterns but the pulmonary pressures are much lower. * The first heart sound is due to the closing of the AV valves, and the second to the closing of the aortic and pulmonary valves.

Answer 136

* Blood flow to the major organs and areas of the body with a resting cardiac output of 5L/minis shown as: – an absolute rate of flow in litres per min, – the rate of flow per 100g of tissue-weight, – and as a percentage of totalflow. * Flow can be redistributed by altering arterial resistance.Blood is diverted from high tolow resistance arterioles

Answer 137

Pressure gradient in the blood vessels. Mean systemic blood pressure ranges from 93 mm Hg In the arteries to about 10 mm Hg in the venae cavae

Answer 138

The total cross sectional area determines the velocity of the flow The velocity of the flow is slowest in the capillaries and most rapid in the aorta and major arteries

Answer 139

Sympathetic stimulation triggers vasoconstriction However blood flow to the contracting muscles increase 10-20 fold This is because Paracrine (local) signals(decreasing PO2 and pH,increasing PCO2 in interstitial fluid) stimulate vasodilation* Paracrine signal overrides the systemic effect of sympathetic stimulation

Answer 140

Baroreceptor reflex adjusts to exercise

Answer 141

Carotid Baroreceptor Stimulation affects systolic, mean, and diastolic arterial blood pressure (ABP) and relative total muscle sympathetic nerve activity(MSNA) in hypertensive patient

Form and Function Flashcards

(169 cards)