french revolution

Question 1

why the estates general was called

Answer 1

1. There was no other representative body.
2. , in 1789 there was no other way of allowing people to air their grievances in a legal and controlled way.
3. Calling the Estates-General would surely help Necker resolve the crown’s problems and this is the main reason why it was called.

Question 2

causes of the French revolution

Answer 2

(1) The French government was under huge debt in the 18th century.
(2) heavy taxes on the French citizens, The clergy also collected separate taxes called Tithes from the people.
(4) The feudal system gave the big landlords the power to enjoy various privileges and exploit the poor peasants by extracting taxes and tributes from them.
(7) The growth of middle class and the ideas of philosophers like Rousseau .

Question 3

what was the reason for financial problems in France by 1789

Answer 3

extravagant spending of the royal family

involvement in the American war of independence

France was in debt (7yrs war, cost of maintaining army and navy)

inadequate taxation system

Question 4

why louis took the flight to Varennes

In June 1791 Louis escaped from Paris but though disguised was recognized and brought back from Varennes in disgrace.

Answer 4

1. He could see no future for himself or the French monarchy.
2. It was assumed by many that Louis had intended to meet up with royalist soldiers or to appeal to Leopold II in Austria.
3. He wanted foreign armies and countries to intervene to save his own neck, his family and in his opinion France itself

Question 5

explain the role of philosophers in the French revolution of 1789

ideas of the old regime vs enlightenment

Answer 5

Ideas of a society based on
freedom
equal laws
opportunities for all,

were put forward by philosophers such as Rousseau.

Question 6

French governments from 1789 to 1795

Answer 6

the national assembly
the legislative assembly
the national convention
committee of public safety

Question 7

louis was responsible for political instability

his attitude to the revolution made any likelihood of a constitutional settlement impossible

Answer 7

he opposed demands to reform

he was suspected of being a counter revolutionary

Question 8

who were the counter revolutionaries

Answer 8

anyone who was opposed to the revolution and the revolutionary government.

emigres
clergy
louis xvi

Question 9

how louis character helped the Jacobins rise to power

Answer 9

louis was an ineffective ruler
he reacted badly to the events of 1789
he was indecisive
he was easily influenced by other royalists and clergy

Question 10

Why did Louis XVI oppose demands for reform in 1789?

Answer 10

• Louis had taken an oath promising to uphold the Ancien Regime.
• He was a profound conservative and a believer in the Divine Right of Kings.
• His influential wife was opposed to any change,
• Many amongst the 1st and 2nd estate were also opposed to any change.
• The enormity of the many demands for change was also a factor
• He was too easily influenced by those who surrounded him and incapable of following through any serious programme of change.

Question 11

‘The counter-revolutionaries failed through poor leadership.’

Answer 11

1. the leadership was consistently divided in their objectives. Some wanted a complete return to the Ancien Regime, and others were prepared to contemplate a constitutional monarchy.
2. There was a real unwillingness to accept that there had to be real change by any in a senior position.
3. Some were prepared to consider the abolition of privilege, others were not.
4. There was never a good leader, the heir after the execution of the King was an infant, who died young
5. Too many of the leaders were also overly concerned with arguing over trivia, such as whether someone was ‘noble’ enough to be accepted in their ranks.

Question 12

why counter revolutionaries failed

Answer 12

1. certainly internal divisions played a major part. There was no agreement on what their objectives should be, either to restore the Ancien Régime or to accept at least a move towards a constitutional monarchy of some type.
2. The incapability of the King’s leadership did not help prior to his execution and furthered the appeal of republicanism. In many cases,
3. Many potential supporters were often unwilling to leave their home regions.
4. those opposed to change were linked with Austria and Prussia which made them appear to be committing treason
5. There was no leadership on the ‘right’ and no agreement on how to proceed after the death of the King.

Question 13

Why did a counter-revolutionary movement emerge after 1789?

Answer 13

• There was still genuine support for the monarchy and the ancien regime.
• The fear of moving into uncharted territory from the political and constitutional point of view.
• The nobility and higher clergy defending their privileges and wealth
• A fear of radicalism and a dislike of the radical revolutionary changes such as the seizure of the wealth of the church and features such as the new calendar.
• The extremes of the Jacobins and the Terror.
• The support from abroad, such as from Austria and the British.
• Dislike in the regions of the increasing domination of the capital

Question 14

To what extent did foreign wars affect the course of the French Revolution prior to 1799?

the whole course of the Revolution would have been profoundly different if there had been no foreign wars

Answer 14

1. wars were necessary to the rise of Napoleon, which arguably brought the revolution to an end.
2. It also drove many to extremes to protect the revolution, the Terror for example.
3. Involvement in foreign wars was also costly, the taxation and conscription led to hostility and support for the counter-revolutionary processes.
4. It also generated a great deal of loyalty to the revolutionary regimes and French military success, such as Jemappes and Fleurus. This naturally boosted the prestige of the regime and ensured its survival.
5. wars led to the creation of an army used to repress counter revolutionary movements, for example the work of Hoche and his troops.
6. It led to France gaining territories such as Piedmont, the Rhineland and Belgium, an increase in the size of France by 20%, which boosted popularity.
7. The successful armies and its generals also led to the Directory losing control of its generals, and its ultimate downfall.

Question 15

Why was the Brumaire coup d’état successful?

Answer 15

1. Many assumed that it was simply another part of an evolutionary revolutionary process and did not see it as unduly significant.
2. Napoleon was a successful and popular general. He presented himself as anti- radical but a supporter of the principal revolutionary gains. He was a consolidator and not a reactionary or an extreme Jacobin.
3. The directory was unpopular and inefficient The Directory lacked many real friends and supporters and tended to be viewed as a temporary measure.
4. There was growing opposition from both the left (Jacobin revival) and there right (royalists) and increasing threat of uprisings.
5. Sieyes, one of the Directors played an important role in supporting the coup as he believed he could use N to further his own political ambitions.
6. Napoleon’s brother also had an important role in the coup itself as he was a key member of the lower chamber and persuaded them to accept the Coup. The military were then able to force the Council of Ancients to accept it.
7. The new constitution was produced extremely quickly and was a sensible and popular move.

8.Napoleon was good at anticipating what would, and would not, be acceptable to the French people at the time

Question 16

To what extent were French government and society reformed by the end of 1791?

Answer 16

1. a National Assembly followed by the Legislative Assembly, was seen as the focal point of government in France.
2. Following the Tennis Court Oath, the fall of the Bastille and the Great Fear there had to be real change and that was accepted by most, if not by the King.
3. The new Constitution represented a massive change from the way in which France had been governed in the past and by the end of 1789
4. 1 Feudalism had gone, along with the glaring inequities of the Ancien régime.
5. The Declarations of the Rights of Man and Citizenship were in place and the monarchy had been reduced in status and given its ‘suspensive’ veto.
6. The fact that this formerly ‘divine’ institution was modified was in itself significant.
7. Furthermore, the Church was in effect nationalised and the new Civil Constitution of the Clergy was a major social change.
8. With local elections and judicial reform coming into force, these also represented a significant change.

Question 17

to what extent was france not yet reformed by 1791

argumets for “it was not reformed”

Answer 17

1. with the King, always reluctant to accept any change except those forced on him, still in a position of influence, the extent to which these reforms were really accepted could be open to question.
2. Many felt that the work done by the end of 1791 in ending the excesses of the Ancien régime was sufficient progress and were opposed to any radical move forwards towards a more democratic and egalitarian society.
3. There was also a growing counter - revolutionary movement and a real threat of possible invasion from Austria and Prussia which could eliminate the changes to date.
4. Changes had been made but how secure they were was open to question.
5. Finally, the flight to Varennes increased opposition to the continued role of the monarchy despite its inclusion in the revised constitution of Sept 1791.

Question 18

Why were political clubs, such as the Jacobins, set up during the Revolution?

Answer 18

• There was a complete lack of leadership and effective policies by the King and his ministers, so something or someone had to fill the void.
• There was considerable political inexperience amongst the membership of the Convention/Assembly.
• There was an element of regionalism in it, with deputies from the Gironde, for example, forming the Girondins.
• The Clubs provided policies, debate and a degree of leadership and co-ordination necessary for anything to happen in the Assembly.
• They provided centres where, for example, the pro and anti-war factions could meet, or those supporting or opposing the execution of the King.

Question 19

‘Effective propaganda was the main reason why Napoleon remained in power for so long

Answer 19

Arguments supporting the statement might consider how
1. he sold himself successfully as the real heir to the revolution.

2. He took great care to present himself and his regime in an impressive light: his portraits of the coronation ceremony are good examples of this.
3. He also took great care to censor and control the press and there was endless emphasis on his military victories and the glory and gains that accrued to France as a result.
4. He also managed to present his failures, such as Trafalgar, in a good light, or blamed someone else.

Question 20

Why was the Bastille stormed?

Answer 20

2. There was also real hunger in Paris and real concern over the rise in prices for foodstuffs and wine.
3. There was also a strong fear that the King would use a growing number of foreign mercenaries to impose his rule on the Parisians rather than use French soldiers whose loyalty to the crown was doubtful.
4. Fear, rumour, royal indecision and incompetence, coupled with a breakdown in law and order in Paris in the three days before the ‘storming’, led to a very tense atmosphere.
5. The Bastille, seen as a symbol of royal authority in Paris, was an obvious target, even though it actually represented no real threat to the insurgency.
6. It was used as a store for gunpowder and weapons and the Parisians, fearing reprisals from the King, wanted to gain access to these.

Question 21

‘revolutionary chaos’ better describes the period of the Directory

Answer 21

1. There was a continuation of the coups and real political difficulties in 1796 and 1797 and it was a coup that overthrew it.
2. There was too much focus on possible threats from the Left and the Right, and not on the economy which was causing most concern to most French people.
3. Inflation became an increasingly important issue and there was simply no idea how to tackle it.
4. Corruption at all levels of government became endemic.
5. There was no attempt to resolve the problems caused by the deChristianisation programme.
6. The government was seen largely as a temporary measure until something better could be found.
7. More worrying was the fact that a private army seemed to have grown up under Bonaparte.

Question 22

‘a period of real achievement’ best describes the period of the directory

Answer 22

1. it was a remarkably calm period when contrasted with the years after 1788.
2. The Terror had ended and executions declined rapidly.
3. The sansculottes ceased to be so powerful and the royalists less significant.
4. There was recovery after the terrible winter of 1794-5 and its resultant hunger.
5. The Constitution of 1795 was made to work reasonably well and it was a remarkable step forward constitutionally for what had been an autocracy for centuries.
6. Coping with annual elections was a great achievement.
7. A large army performed brilliantly under the leadership of Napoleon.
8. The judiciary and local government were reformed and made to work with reasonable efficiency.
9. The remarkable concept of the separation of powers was actually made to work.
10. A move towards dealing with the assignats and the appalling level of debt was made with some success. When contrasted with the previous years, it was an oasis of calm.

Question 23

Why was the National Assembly formed?

Answer 23

1. The Estates-General was called on 5 May 1789 to deal with France’s financial crisis. The First and Second Estates, the clergy and the nobility, were unable to work with the Third Estate – the latter seeing itself as the most representative of all the three Estates. The Third Estate began meeting without the consultation of the other two and on 17 June declared itself the National Assembly of France. They were gradually joined by some of the nobles and the majority of the clergy.
2. On 17 June 1789, the Third Estate, infuriated by the attitudes of the other two Estates, adopted the ideas of Sieyes that sovereignty lay with the majority of the people of France, and that they represented that majority. As a result, only they could decide on tax.
3. The indecision of the King and the growing sense of a national crisis were also factors.
4. With the King declaring their actions null and void, which appeared to add to their credibility, and being increasingly joined by many of the lower clergy and some of the nobility, there was a general acceptance that this ‘National Assembly’ spoke for France.
5. On June 19, only two days after the National Assembly convened itself, Louis ordered the Estates to separate and the building in which the National Assembly met closed. However, the Assembly found another place to meet on an indoor tennis court and swore that they would not dissolve until France had a written constitution

Question 24

Assess the reasons why Napoleon was able to bring stability to France

Answer 24

1. After the collapse of the Ancien Regime, the chaos of the Terror and the concerns over the legitimacy and ability of the Directory, any regime which offered the mix of legitimacy and stability was bound to be supported, for a while at least.
2. Napoleon was able to quickly give the impression that he was there to stay and convince the French, partly through the plebiscite, that he was ‘legitimate’.
3. He achieved a sensible balance between the long-established autocracy of the past with the clearly popular ideas of the early revolutionary period.
4. He was a successful General who brought glory to France. Earlier wars had brought few clear gains; he brought territories and military victories.
5. He was a successful propagandist and used censorship carefully.
6. He dealt with major issues which affected the majority of the people.
7. He established a sensible relationship with the Church.
8. He invested in infrastructure and law and order returned to the regions.
9. Care was taken to ensure food supply and prices. With ‘careers open to talent’ he gained support from formerly alienated classes.
10. The Code restored faith in the judiciary and his changes in education gained much support from the middle class which had led much of the revolutionary process.
11. He sensed what the public wanted and delivered it.
12. he provided good, stable, government and ensured that the most important, to the middleclass, gains of the revolution were maintained.
13. There were also sensible, popular and lasting reforms such as the Concordat and the Civil Code which helped his longevity.
14. Additionally, there was a lack of any alternative to his rule. Louis was hardly a threat.

Question 25

Why did the Terror come to an end in 1794?

Answer 25

1. The revolution had become too radical and alienated too much opinion. 2. The De-Christianisation campaign, while popular with some in Paris, offended many in the rural areas. 3. The bad military situation had been reversed (the British evacuated Toulon in October 1739 and the Republic’s army defeated the Coalition Army at Fleurus in June 1794), so there was seen to be less need of radical measures. The republic was no longer in danger. 4. .The Committee of Public Safety was badly divided about the need to continue with it. 5. With the deaths of Danton and Robespierre there was the opportunity to return to a more ‘constitutional’ approach. 6. The sense of danger and threat to the gains of 1790–91 had passed. 7. There was a real fear amongst moderates that dictatorship was a real possibility, or a return to a monarchy, and a sensible way forward which maintained the earlier gains had to be found. 8. While those who participated in the coup which led to Robespierre’s death were not specifically aiming to end the Terror, they utilised the power vacuum which followed to end its worst excesses

Question 26

‘The aims of the Revolution were not yet achieved by the end of 1791.’

Answer 26

Responses need to give some idea of what the aims of the ‘revolutionaries’ actually were. () 1. Some wished for radical changes while others sought much more modest ones which might lead to a constitutional monarchy with only minor social and religious change. 2. While on the one hand the Ancien Regime appeared to have gone, there was little sign of coherent rebuilding. 3. There was little fiscal stability and no real answers to the issues of taxation which had played such a key part in bringing about the crisis of 1789. 4. They were not really solved until Napoleon’s time. The wish for change in the regions had not really come about. 5. Arguably, what change there was could be seen as superficial and not likely to last while there was still a Bourbon on the throne, and there was still a throne.

Question 27

‘The aims of the Revolution had been achieved by the end of 1791.’ augments for

Answer 27

1. However, there were major changes in the system of administering justice which could be seen as a radical change for the better. 2. The feudal system had largely cracked. Public opinion had forced change. 3. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy was also a major step forward for many. 4. The King had accepted the new Constitution, in theory at any rate, but how genuine his acceptance of it and how decisions in areas such as foreign policy would be taken remained to be seen. 5. It could also be argued that the aims were now more clearly identified and that they were a work in progress by the end of 1791.

Question 28

Why did the Directory survive for four years?

Answer 28

1. A strong reaction to the excesses of the Terror/Jacobin. 2. Dislike of the De-Christianisation process – the more conservative appearance of the Directory had wide appeal. 3. It occupied the middle ground between the excesses of the Ancien Regime and those of the Terror. 4. Its foreign policy was successful and the war progressed well. 5. It had the support of the army. 6. It made semi-democratic institutions work. It administered the state and the localities sensibly. 7. Opposition (Jacobins, Royalists) was weak and divided.

Question 29

lower-class unrest was the driving force of the Revolution from 1789 to 179

Answer 29

Ideally, ‘lower-class unrest’ should not just be seen as the actions of the Paris mob and the sans culottes. Popular unrest in the regions could be very different from Parisian. There are plenty of examples: 1. The storming of the Bastille, 2. The Great Fear and the September Massacres. 3. The reaction to the flight to Varennes as well as the several outbursts of severe rural unrest. 4. Conditions in the countryside in 1789 were dire and there was real hunger reported right across France in the first four months of the year. 5. the refusal to pay taxes.

Question 30

lower-class unrest wasn't the driving force of the Revolution from 1789 to 1791 arguments against

Answer 30

1. There was middle-class unrest at the lack of representation. 2. Most of the radicals came from middle-class backgrounds and it is suggested that it was their ability to manipulate lower-class unrest that could be the ‘driving force’. 3. The refusal of the monarchy to compromise in any realistic way increased the appeal of radical solutions. 4. There was the constant pressure of war after 1792. 5. The need to find a way of governing the country and solving its problems that could achieve popular support

Question 31

Why did Napoleon face so little opposition to his rule in France?

Answer 31

1. He took care to ensure that the worst features of the Ancien Regime did not reappear. 2. What many saw as the ‘best’ of the Revolution was accepted. 3. The Civil Code solved many problems and lasted. It was a good blend of the old and the new. 4. Care was taken to ensure the hunger of the old days did not return. The supply and quality of bread was taken care of. 5. The Concordat prevented the return of the ‘Catholic’ issue and there was religious toleration for Protestants. 6. His successes abroad were popular and raised his prestige and that of France. 7. Censorship and the work of Fouché also helped to repress any dissent. 8. With the idea of ‘careers open to talent’, there were outlets for the able, especially amongst the middle class. 9. The plebiscites gave the impression that consent was there. 10. The mix of glory and good government was popular, and many were tired of the coups and instability of the 1790s

Question 32

Why was there increasing hostility towards the King from 1789 to 1793?

Answer 32

1. The increased reluctance on the part of the King and his entourage to compromise when it came to sovereignty or make any concessions towards a constitutional monarchy. 2. It became clear that the revolutionary gains of 1790–91 were not likely to last under Louis. 3. The behaviour of the remainder of the royal family indicated real hostility to the revolutionary process. 4. There was no evidence to suggest that the King would accept a ‘constitutional’ role. 5. The aristocracy tended to support the royal approach and the attitudes of the Austrians (the Queen’s relatives) and the Prussians showed that there could be support for absolutism coming from abroad. 6. The flight to Varennes demonstrated Louis’ weaknesses which only intensified the opposition to him. 7. While there had been some ‘revolutionary’ gains, they appeared tenuous and there was still a background of considerable social and economic distress which inevitably reflected back on the monarch. 8. Little had been done by the monarch to deal with pressing issues such as hunger.

Question 33

To what extent did Napoleon’s reforms maintain the principles of the Revolution? arguments against "he did not maintain revolutionary principles"

Answer 33

1. Napoleon did create an autocratic regime, with its censorship and ‘police state’ under Fouché, and with all major decisions on war and peace being taken by an ‘Emperor’. 2. Great care was taken to deal with potential and actual opposition. Plebiscites were carefully managed. 3. Equality did not extend to females and radicals were banished. 4. Conscription was enforced as was a high level of taxation. 5. The economy was very carefully managed with state control dominant. 6. It was an authoritarian regime which paid lip service to the idea of consent, and was a long way from the constitutional monarchy dreamed of by many in the early 1790s.

Question 34

To what extent did Napoleon’s reforms maintain the principles of the Revolution? arguments against "he maintained it"

Answer 34

1. the Civil Code was a major step forward. 2. The concept of equality before the law was established. 3. The feudal system went, The privileges of the nobility and the clergy had gone. 4. There was a much better relationship between the Church and the State. 5. The plebiscites at least paid some lip service to the idea of consent in government. 6. The idea of ‘careers open to talent’ developed. 7. The level of corruption and incompetence in local government dropped considerably. 8. Much more care was taken over issues like food supply and poverty generally, which would suggest that many of the key elements remained.

Question 35

Why was Louis XVI unwilling to accept a constitutional monarchy?

Answer 35

1. Personal stubbornness and a reluctance to accept reality were very important. 2. The idea of compromise was alien to him. He accepted, and really believed in, the concept of ‘Divine Right’ and saw it as something that could not just be watered down or modified. 3. There was also an obvious lack of clarity in the various demands coming from below. 4. There was a strong possibility that even a constitutional monarchy would not have been acceptable to many radicals. 5. There was huge pressure from his entourage to ignore the demands for change and there was also the hope that his wife’s relatives and other foreign powers would help him retain the ancien régime. 6. There was no tradition there to build on for such a radical innovation in continental Europe.

Question 36

Why was a Republic created in 1792?

Answer 36

Several reasons can be considered. 1.The flight of the King and his capture indicated that there was no chance of a constitutional monarchy and the monarchy had to be abolished. 2. The monarch and his supporters really gave the revolutionary movement no option. 3. There was an absence of any consensus as to how France could be governed and the only effective group left were the radical Jacobins and they seized their opportunity. 4. With acute food shortages, a breakdown of authority in the provinces, the background of a war and the September Massacres there was ample opportunity for a radical solution to the problems that had initially surfaced in 1789. 5. The French people had clearly rejected a return to the Ancien Régime and a republic seemed most likely not only to preserve the gains to date, but to offer a degree of stability in the future.

Question 37

Why was there a ‘terror’ in France between 1792 and 1794?

Answer 37

A variety of factors can be considered, 1. The beginnings go back to the use of force in the Bastille attack and then the September 1792 prison massacres in Paris and Versailles. 2. There were a range of threats to the Republic. 3. There was the fear of Austrian invasion and the British attacking in the Channel and the Mediterranean. 4. There was a violently anti-Jacobin outbreak in the regions and the Counter-Revolutionaries were gaining ground and confidence. 4. Cities like Lyons and Toulon were breaking away and it was felt that radical measures had to be taken to save the gains of 1789 to 1792. 5. There was direct pressure from the sans-culottes on the Committee of Public Safety to act firmly. The personalities of Robespierre and one of the key ‘executioners’, Fouché, could also be considered.

Question 38

Why did the Directory fall?

Answer 38

1. There are two broad reasons, the first being its inability to offer to the French people a solution to the contemporary political, social and economic problems of the time, 2. the second because of the effective seizure of power by Napoleon Bonaparte. 3. While the Directory did offer some stability and managed some competent government, there was the constant background of war and possible counter revolutionary activity, as well as the various coups. 4. They could provide no solution to the fundamental issue of ‘how is France to be governed?’ which pleased a wide enough range of the population. 5. Bonaparte was an ambitious successful general with considerable appeal and his timing and the vital work of his brother made for a successful coup. He seemed to offer a viable alternative

Question 39

Why was Napoleon popular with the French people?

Answer 39

There are a variety of reasons which could be considered. 1.He brought stability after the years of turmoil, the execution of the King, the Terror and the coups of the Directory period. 2. He was a highly successful general who brought glory and acquisitions to France. 3. He was an excellent propagandist who managed opposition carefully. 4. His domestic policy ensured that many of the popular gains of the revolution remained. 5. His civil code was respected and the Concordat with the Papacy calmed the religious. 6. Taxation fell equally and there were obvious gains in areas like education.

Question 40

‘Social and economic factors provide the best explanation for government instability between 1789 and 1795.’ How far do you agree? A debate comparing the economic causes of instability with the many other factors is looked for. There can be a fairly broad interpretation of both ‘social’ and ‘economic’ in this context.

Answer 40

1. It was issues over the inequality of taxation and the national debt which could be seen as critical factors in setting off the whole revolutionary process, as could hunger and economic deprivation amongst the poor. 2. A hungry mob was often an important causative factor in the events of the period. 3. Resentment by the Third Estate of the abuse of privilege by the other two Estates dominates these years, and the determination of the monarchy and the privileged estates to hang on to their powers and influence was critical.

Question 41

‘Social and economic factors provide the best explanation for government instability between 1789 and 1795.’ How far do you agree? arguments against

Answer 41

1. Arguably poverty and economic aspiration fuelled the process in the period, rather than caused it, 2. For example, the impact of the Revolutionary War, policies of the Jacobins (e.g. The Terror) and war in the Vendee. 3. Also, French society had been rigidly hierarchical and those outside the chosen courtiers had rarely exercised any power. 4. In many regions there was a deep loathing of both aristocracy and Church which fuelled disorder; the incompetence of the King and his duplicity over Varennes, for example. 5. Louis made it apparent he was not to be trusted, which made any settlement unlikely. 6. There was no consensus amongst the political elites about who should govern France and how. * The social and economic divisions were too deep to be easily overcome.

Question 42

what is the great fear

Answer 42

was a general panic that occurred between 17 July and 3 August 1789 at the start of the French Revolution. Rural unrest had been present in France since the worsening grain shortage of the spring, and fueled by the rumors of an aristocrat "famine plot" to starve or burn out the population, peasant and town people mobilized in many regions.