G Flashcards
(138 cards)
1
Q
One of the two main types of receptor protein that bind the neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), the other being the GABAb receptor
- It is located at most synapses of most neurons that use GABA as a neurotransmitter
- The predominant inhibitory receptor in the central nervous system (CNS), it functions as a chloride channel
A
GABAa Receptor
2
Q
One of the two main types of receptor protein that bind the neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), the other being the GABAa receptor
- GABAb receptors, which are G protein coupled receptors, are less plentiful in the brain than GABAa receptors and their activation results in relatively long lasting neuronal inhibition
A
GABAb Receptor
3
Q
A change in the electrical properties (conductance or resistance) of the skin in reaction to stimuli, owing to the activity of sweat glands located in the fingers and palms
- Though strictly an indication of physiological arousal, this is widely considered a reflection of emotional arousal and stress as well
A
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
4
Q
A failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past chance events
A
Gambler’s Fallacy
5
Q
A social interaction, transaction, or other organized activity with formal rules
- In psychotherapy, for example, this is a situation in which members of a group take part in some activity designed to elicit emotions, increase self awareness, or stimulate revealing interactions and interrelationships
- In play therapy, these are often used as a projective or observational technique
A
Game
6
Q
Either of the female or male reproductive cells that take part in fertilization to produce a zygote
- In humans and other animals, the female gamete is the ovum and the male gamete is the spermatozoon
- These contain the haploid number of chromosomes rather than the diploid number found in body (somatic) cells
A
Gamete
7
Q
A branch of mathematics concerned with the analysis of the behavior of decision makers (called players) whose choices affect one another
- This is often used in both theoretical modeling and empirical studies of conflict, cooperation, and competition, and has helped to structure interactive decision making situations in numerous disciplines, including economics, political science, social psychology, and ethics
A
Game Theory
8
Q
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian nervous system that is synthesized from the amino acid glutamic acid
A
Gamma Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
9
Q
In electroencephalography, a type of low amplitude brain wave ranging from 31 to 80 Hz (with power peaking near 40 Hz) and associated with higher level cognitive activities, such as memory storage
A
Gamma Wave
10
Q
A collection of cell bodies of neurons that lies outside the central nervous system (the basal ganglia, however, are an exception)
- Many invertebrates have only distributed ganglia and no centralized nervous system
A
Ganglion
11
Q
A type of intercellular junction consisting of a gap of about 2-4 nm between the plasma membranes of two cells, spanned by protein channels that allow passage of electrical signals
A
Gap Junction
12
Q
The hypothesis that the subjective experience of pain is modulated by large nerve fibers in the spinal cord that act as gates, such that pain is not the product of a simple transmission of stimulation from the skin or some internal organ to the brain
- Rather, sensations from noxious stimulation impinging on pain receptors have to pass through these spinal gates to the brain in order to emerge as pain perceptions
- The status of the gates, however, is subject to a variety of influences (eg; drugs, injury, emotions, possibly even instructions coming down from the brain itself), which can operate to shut them, thus inhibiting pain transmission, or cause them to be fully open, thus facilitating transmission
A
Gate Control Theory
13
Q
A health care professional, usually a primary care provider associated with a managed care organization, who determines a patient’s access to health care services and whose approval is required for referrals to specialists
A
Gatekeeper
14
Q
Any chemical substance whose chronic use leads to the subsequent use of more harmful substances that have significant potential for abuse and dependence
- For example, alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana are often considered a gateway to such drugs as heroin, cocaine, LSD, and PCP
- Introduced in the 1950s, the concept has become the most popular framework for understanding drug use among adolescent populations, guiding prevention efforts and even shaping governmental policy
A
Gateway Drug
15
Q
The inhibition or exclusion from attention of certain sensory stimuli when attention is focused on other stimuli
- That is, while attending to specific information in the environment, other information does not reach awareness
A
Gating
16
Q
The condition of being male, female, or neuter
- In a human context, the distinction between gender and sex reflects usage of these terms: sex usually refers to the biological aspects of maleness or femaleness, whereas gender implies the psychological, behavioral, social, and cultural aspects of being male or female (ie; masculinity or feminity)
A
Gender
17
Q
Any one of a variety of stereotypical beliefs about individuals on the basis of their sex, particularly as related to the differential treatment of females and males
- These biases often are expressed linguistically, as in use of the phrase physicians and their wives (instead of physicians and their spouses, which avoids the implication that physicians must be male) or of the term he when people of both sexes are under discussion
A
Gender Bias
18
Q
The understanding that one’s own and other people’s sex is fixed across situations, regardless of superficial changes in appearance or activities
A
Gender Consistency
19
Q
A child’s emerging sense of the permeance of being a boy or a girl, an understanding that occurs in a series of stages: gender identity, gender stability, and gender consistency
A
Gender Constancy
20
Q
Typical differences between men and women that are specific to a particular culture and influenced by its attitudes and practices
- These emerge in a variety of domains, such as careers, communication, and interpersonal relationships
A
Gender Differences
21
Q
Discontent with the physical or social aspects of one’s own sex
A
Gender Dysphoria
22
Q
A recognition that one is male or female and the internalization of this knowledge into one’s self concept
- Although the dominant approach in psychology for many years had been to regard this as residing in individuals, the importance of societal structures, cultural expectations, and personal interactions in its development is new recognized as well
- Indeed, significant evidence now exists to support the conceptualization of this as influenced by both environmental and biological factors
A
Gender Identity
23
Q
A disorder characterized by clinically significant distress or impairment of functioning due to cross gender identification (ie; a desire to be or actual insistence that one is of the opposite sex) and persistent discomfort arising from the belief that one’s sex or gender is inappropriate to one’s true self
- The disorder is distinguished from simple dissatisfaction or nonconformity with gender roles
A
Gender Identity Disorder
24
Q
The pattern of behavior, personality traits, and attitudes that define masculinity or femininity in a particular culture
- It frequently is considered the external manifestation of the internalized gender identity, although the two are not necessarily consistent with one another
A
Gender Role
25
The organized set of beliefs and expectations that guides one's understanding of maleness and femaleness
Gender Schema
26
The understanding that one's own or other people's sex does not change overtime
Gender Stability
27
A relatively fixed, overly simplified concept of the attitudes and behaviors considered normal and appropriate for a person in a particular culture, based on his or her biological sex
- Research indicates that these stereotypes are prescriptive as well as descriptive
- These often support the social conditioning of gender roles
Gender Stereotype
28
Expectations about people's behavior that are based on their biological sex or the process through which children acquire and internalize such expectations
Gender Typing
29
The basic unit of heredity, responsible for storing genetic information and transmitting it to subsequent generations
- The observable characteristics of an organism (ie; its phenotype) are determined by numerous genes, which contain the instructions necessary for the functioning of the organism's constituent cells
- Each gene consists of a section of DNA, a large and complex molecule that, in higher organisms, is arranged to form the chromosomes of the cell nucleus
- Instructions are embodied in the chemical composition of the DNA, according to the genetic code
- In classical genetics, a gene is described in terms of the trait that it determines and is investigated largely by virtue of the variations brought about by its different forms, or alleles
- At the molecular level, most genes encode proteins, which carry out the functions of the cell or act to regulate the expression of other genes
Gene
30
The creation of a schematic representation of the arrangement of genes, genetic markers, or both as they occur in the genetic material of an organism
Gene Mapping
31
The physiological consequences of severe stress
- The syndrome has three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
- The first stage, the alarm reaction (or alarm stage), comprises two substages: the shock phase, marked by a decrease in body temperature, blood pressure, and muscle tone and loss of fluid from body tissues; and the countershock phase, during which the sympathetic nervous system is aroused and there is an increase in adrenocortical hormones, triggering a defensive reaction, such as the fight or flight response
- The resistance stage consists of stabilization at the increased physiological levels
- Resources may be depleted, and permanent organ changed produced
- The exhaustion stage is characterized by breakdown of acquired adaptations to a prolonged stressful situation; it is evidenced by such signs as sleep disturbances, irritability, severe loss of concentration, restlessness, trembling that disturbs motor coordination, fatigue, and depressed mood
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
32
(Symbol: g)
A basic ability that underlies the performance of different varieties of intellectual tasks, in contrast to specific factors, which are alleged each to be unique to a single task
- This represents individuals’ abilities to perceive relationships and to derive conclusions from them
General Factor
33
Intelligence that is applicable to a very wide variety of tasks
General Intelligence
34
The accuracy with which results or findings can be transferred to situations or people other than those originally studied
Generalizability
35
1. The process of deriving a concept, judgement, principle, or theory from a limited number of specific cases and applying it more widely, often to an entire class of objects, events, or people
2. In conditioning, see stimulus generalization
Generalization
36
Excessive anxiety and worry about a range of events and activities (eg; finances, health, work) accompanied by such symptoms as restlessness, fatigue, impaired centration, irritability, muscle tension, and disturbed sleep
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
37
In symbolic interactionism, the aggregation of other people's viewpoints
- It is distinguished from specific other people and their individual views
Generalized Other
38
A seizure in which abnormal electrical activity involves the entire brain rather than a specific focal area
- The two most common forms are absence seizures and some tonic clinic seizures
Generalized Seizure
39
A large class of statistical techniques, including regression analysis, analysis of variance, and correlational analysis, that describe the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables
- Most statistical techniques employed in the behavioral sciences can be subsumed under this
General Linear Model
40
A computer program so named because its approach to problem solving using means ends analysis was intended to address many different problems and problem types
General Problem Solver
41
A computer program so named because its approach to problem solving using means ends analysis was intended to address many different problems and problem types
General Problem Solver
42
An interdisciplinary conceptual framework that views an entity or phenomenon holistically as a set of elements interacting with one another (ie; as a system), with the ultimate goal being to identify and understand the principles applicable to all systems
- the impact of each element in a system depends on the role played by other elements in the system and order arises from interaction among these elements
- This was designed to move beyond the reductionistic and mechanistic tradition in science and integrate the fragmented approaches and different classes of phenomena studied
General Systems Theory
43
The differences in values, morals, attitudes, and behavior apparent between younger and older people in society
- The term was first used with reference to the burgeoning youth culture of the late 1960s
Generation Gap
44
An approach to linguistics whose goal is to account for the infinite set of possible grammatical sentences in a language using a finite set of generative rules
- Unlike earlier inductive approaches that set out to describe and draw inferences about grammar on the basis of a corpus of natural language, the theories of this developed by U.S. linguist Noam Chomsky (1928 - ) in the 1950s and 1960s took for their basic data the intuitions of native speakers about what is and is not grammatical
- In taking this approach, Chomsky revolutionized the whole field of linguistics, effectively redefining it as a branch of cognitive psychology
- Much research in psycholinguistics has since focused on whether the various models suggested by this have psychological reality in the production and reception of language
Generative Grammar
45
The seventh stage of Erikson's eight stages of development
- Generativity is the positive goal of middle adulthood, interpreted in terms not only of procreation but also of creativity and fulfilling one's full parental and social responsibilities toward the next generation, in contrast to a narrow interest in the self, or self absorption
Generativity versus Stagnation
46
The insertion of segments of healthy DNA into human body cells to correct defective segments responsible for disease development
- A carrier molecule called a vector is used to deliver the therapeutic gene to the patient's target cells, restoring them to a normal state of producing properly functioning proteins
- Though experimental, current gene therapy holds significant promise as an effective treatment for a variety of pathological conditions, including neurodegenerative disorders
- It is, however, not without its share of problems: (a) difficulties integrating therapeutic DNA into the genome and the rapidly dividing nature of many cells have prevented any long term benefits; (b) avoiding the stimulation of the immune system response to foreign objects; and (c) conditions that arise from mutations in a single gene are the best candidates for gene therapy, yet some of the most commonly occurring disorders (eg; heart disease, high blood pressure, Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, diabetes) are caused by the combined effects of variations in many genes
- Additionally, there are ethical, legal, and social concerns associated with the practice
Gene Therapy
47
The instructions in genes that "tell" the cell how to make specific proteins
- The code resides in the sequence of bases occurring as constituents of DNA or RNA
- These bases are represented by the letters A, T, G, and C (which stand for adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine, respectively)
- In messenger RNA, uracil (U) replaces thymine
- Each unit of the code consists of three consecutive bases
Genetic Code
48
An interactive method of educating a prospective parent about genetic risks, benefits and limitations of genetic testing, reproductive risks, and options for surveillance and screening related to diseases with potentially inherited causes
Genetic Counseling
49
The doctrine that human and nonhuman animal behavior and mental activity are largely (or completely) controlled by the genetic constitution of the individual and that responses to environmental influences are for the most part innately determined
Genetic Determinism
50
Techniques by which the genetic contents of living cells or viruses can be deliberately altered, either by modifying the existing genes or by introducing novel material (eg; a gene from another species)
- This is undertaken for many different reasons; for example, there have been attempts to modify defective human body cells in the hope of treating certain genetic diseases
- However, considerable public concern focuses on the effects and limits of this
Genetic Engineering
51
A term used by Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) to denote his theoretical approach to and experimental study of the development of knowledge
Genetic Epistemology
52
The study of the development of mental functions in children and their transformation across the lifespan
- In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the term was preferred over the synonymous developmental psychology, although currently the reverse is true
Genetic Psychology
53
The branch of biology that is concerned with the mechanisms and phenomena of heredity
Genetics
54
The reproductive organs of the male or female
- The male genitalia include the penis, testes and related structures, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and bulbourethral glands
- The female genitalia consist of the vagina, uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and related structures
- The external genitalia comprise the vulva in females and the penis and testicles in males
Genitalia
55
In psychoanalytic theory, the final stage of psychosexual development, ideally reached in puberty, when the Oedipus complex has been fully resolved and erotic interest and activity are focused on intercourse with a sexual partner
Genital Stage
56
An extreme degree of intellectual or creative ability, or any person who possesses such ability
- This may be demonstrated by exceptional achievement, particularly the creation of literary, artistic, or scientific masterpieces of extraordinary power or inventiveness, or the production of insights or ideas of great originality
- Although a frustratingly vague definition, it is virtually impossible to provide a more precise one, or even a definitive list of attributes, given that the term essentially is an acknowledgement of what a person has done rather than a description of what a person is like
- Additionally, this is seen to emerge as a joint product of heredity and environment and to require a great deal of very hard and dedicated work to achieve
Genius
57
All of the genetic material contained in an organism or cell
- Mapping of the estimated 20,000 - 25,000 genes in human DNA was one of several goals of the Human Genome Project
Genome
58
The genetic composition of an individual organism as a whole or at one or more specific positions on a chromosome
Genotype
59
The proposal that an individual’s genotype influences which environments he or she encounters and the type of experiences he or she has
Genotype Environment Effects
60
Any misinterpretation by the visual system of a figure made of straight or curved lines
- Examples of such illusions are the Müller Lyer Illusion and the Zöllner Illusion
Geometric Illusion
61
The branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders in older adults
Geriatrics
62
Any of the cells in the gonads that give rise to the gametes by a process involving growth and meiosis
Germ Cell
63
The scientific interdisciplinary study of old age and the aging process
Gerontology
64
A set of four symptoms associated with lesions of a specific area of the (usually left) parietal lobe
- They are inability to recognize one's individual fingers, inability to distinguish between the right and left sides of one's body, inability to perform mathematical calculations, and inability to write
- The existence of this as a true independent entity is subject to debate [Josef G. Gerstmann (1887 - 1969), Austrian neurologist]
Gerstmann's Syndrome
65
An entire perceptual configuration (from German: "shape", "form"), made up of elements that are integrated and interactive in such a way as to confer properties on the whole configuration that are not possessed by the individual elements
Gestalt
66
Principles of perception, derived by the Gestalt psychologists, that describe the tendency to perceive and interpret certain configurations at the level of the whole, rather than in terms of their component features
- Examples include good continuation, closure, and prägnanz
Gestalt Principles of Organization
67
A psychological approach that focuses on the dynamic organization of experience into patterns or configurations
- This view was espoused in the early 20th century as a revolt against structuralism, which analyzed experience into static, atomistic sensations, and also against the equally atomistic approach of behaviorism, which attempted to dissect complex behavior into elementary conditioned reflexes
- This holds, instead, that experience is an organized whole of which the pieces are an integral part
- Later experimentation in this approach gave rise to principles of perceptual organization (including closure, prägnanz, and proximity), which were then applied to the study of learning, insight, memory, social psychology, and art
Gestalt Psychology
68
A form of psychotherapy in which the central focus is on the totality of the client's functioning and relationships in the here and now, rather than on investigation of past experiences and developmental history
- One of the themes is that growth occurs by assimilation of what is needed from the environment and that psychopathology arises as a disturbance of contact with the environment
- Gestalt techniques, which can be applied in either a group or an individual setting, are designed to bring out spontaneous feelings and self awareness and promote personality growth
Gestalt Therapy
69
The development of the embryo and fetus in the uterus until birth
Gestation
70
1. A movement, such as the waving of a hand, that communicates a particular meaning or indicates the individual’s emotional state or attitude
2. A statement or act, usually symbolic, that is intended to influence the attitudes of others (as in a gesture of goodwill)
Gesture
71
A peptide secreted by endocrine cells in the stomach that binds to growth hormone receptors in the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, stimulating appetite and the release of growth hormone
Ghrelin
72
The state of possessing a great amount of natural ability, talent, or intelligence, which usually becomes evident at a very young age
- This in intelligence is often categorized as an IQ of two standard deviations above the mean or higher (130 for most IQ tests)
- Many schools and service organizations now use a combination of attributes as the basis for assessing this, including one or more of the following: high intellectual capacity, academic achievement, demonstrable real world achievement, creativity, task commitment, proven talent, leadership skills, and physical or athletic prowess
Giftedness
73
An organ that secretes a substance for use by or discharge from the body
- Exocrine glands release their products through a duct onto internal or external bodily surfaces, whereas endocrine glands are ductless and secrete their products directly into the bloodstream
Gland
74
An unofficial, intangible barrier that prevents able and ambitious individuals, particularly women and members of minority groups, from rising to positions of authority in many organizations
Glass Ceiling
75
A common eye disease marked by raised pressure inside one or both eyes, causing progressive peripheral visual field loss
- If untreated, this results in severe visual impairment and ultimately blindness
Glaucoma
76
Non neuronal tissue in the nervous system that provides structural, nutritional, and other kinds of support to neurons
- It may consist of very small cells (microglia) or relatively large ones (macroglia)
- The latter include astrocytes, cells of the ependyma, and the two types of cells that form the myelin sheath around axons: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system
Glia
77
A form of brain tumor that develops from support cells (glia) in the central nervous system
- There are three main types, grouped according to the form of support cell involved: astrocytoma (from astrocytes), ependymoma (from ependyma), and oligodendroglioma (from oligodendrocytes)
- This is the most conmen type of brain cancer and accounts for about a quarter of spinal cord tumors
Glioma
78
One of the basal ganglia
- It is the main output region of the basal ganglia: its output neurons terminate on thalamic neurons, which in turn project to the cerebral cortex
Globus Pallidus
79
Unintelligible utterances that simulate coherent speech, which may have meaning to the utterer but do not to the listener
- This is found in religious ecstasy ("speaking in tongues"), hypnotic or mediumistic trances, and occasionally in schizophrenia
Glossolalia
80
The ninth cranial nerve, which supplies the pharynx, soft palate, and posterior third of the tongue, including the taste buds of that portion
- It contains both motor and sensory fibers and is involved in swallowing and conveying taste information
Glossopharyngeal Nerve
81
A polypeptide hormone, secreted by the A cells of the Islets of Langerhans, that increases the concentration of glucose in the blood
- It opposes the effects of insulin by promoting the breakdown of glycogen and fat reserves to yield glucose
Glucagon
82
Any corticosteroid hormone that acts chiefly on carbohydrate metabolism
- An example is cortisol
Glucocorticoid
83
Any of certain cells in the hypothalamus that bind glucose
- These are a putative mechanism for detecting levels of circulating glucose and conveying this information to brain areas
Glucoreceptor
84
A soluble sugar, abundant in nature, that is a major source of energy for body tissues
- The brain relies almost exclusively on this for its energy needs
- This is derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and - to a much lesser extent - fats
- Its concentration in the bloodstream is tightly controlled by the opposing actions of the hormones insulin and glucagon
Glucose
85
The theory that short tem regulation of food intake is governed by the rate of glucose metabolism (ie; utilization), rather than by overall blood levels of glucose
Glucostatic Theory
86
A salt or ester of the amino acid glutamic acid that serves as the predominant excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
- This exerts its effects by binding to glutamate receptors on neurons and plays a critical role in cognitive, motor, and sensory functions
Glutamate
87
The theory that decreased activity of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is responsible for the clinical expression of schizophrenia
- The hypothesis developed from observations that administration of NMDA receptor antagonists, such as PCP (phencyclidine), produce psychotic symptoms in humans and is supported by a number of recent studies
Glutamate Hypothesis
88
Any of various receptors that bind and respond to the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate
- There are two main divisions of these: the ionotropic receptors and the metabotropic receptors
- Ionotropic glutamate receptors are further divided into three classes: NMDA receptors (binding NMDA as well as glutamate), AMPA receptors (binding AMPA as well as glutamate), and kainate receptors (binding kainic acid as well as glutamate)
- Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGlu or mGlur) are subdivided into several classes denoted by subscript numbers (ie; mGlu1, mGlu2, etc)
Glutamate Receptor
89
Responding to, releasing, or otherwise involving glutamate
- For example, a glutamatergic neuron is one that uses glutamate as a neurotransmitter
Glutamategic
90
An amino acid that serves as one of the two major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the central nervous system (particularly the spinal cord), the other being gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Glycine
91
A process that establishes specific, time based behavior targets that are measurable, achievable, and realistic
- In work related settings, for example, this practice usually provides employees with both (a) a basis for motivation, in terms of effort expended, and (b) guidelines or cues to behavior that will be required if the goal is to be met
Goal Setting
92
An irregular network of membranes and vesicles within a cell that is responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins produced within the cell [Camillo Golgi (1843 - 1926), Italian histologist]
Golgi Apparatus
93
A receptor in muscle tendons that sends impulses to the central nervous system when a muscle contracts
Golgi Tendon Organ
94
Either of the primary male and female sex organs, that is, the testis or the ovary
Gonad
95
Any of several hormones produced primarily by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulate functions of the gonads, particularly follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
Gonadotropin
96
A hormone secreted by neurons of the hypothalamus that controls the release of luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary gland
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
97
One of the Gestalt principles of organization
- It states that people tend to perceive objects in alignment as forming smooth, unbroken contours
- For example, when two lines meet in a figure the preferred interpretation is of two continuous lines: a cross is interpreted as a vertical line and a horizontal line, rather than two right angles meeting at their vertices
Good Continuation
98
Any index that reflects the degree to which values predicted by a model agree with empirically observed values
Goodness of Fit
99
Any of a class of proteins that are coupled to the intracellular portion of a type of membrane receptor and are activated when the receptor binds an appropriate ligand (eg; a neurotransmitter) on the extracellular surface
- These thus have a role in signal transduction, serving to transmit the signal from the receptor to other cell components (eg; ion channels) in various ways, for example by controlling the synthesis of second messengers within the cell
G Protein
100
Any change in electrical potential of a neuron that is not propagated along the cell (as is an action potential) but declines with distance from the source
- Receptor potentials are an example
Graded Potential
101
1. The slope of a line or surface
2. A measure of the change of a physical quantity (eg; temperature) or other property (eg; strength of a drive)
Gradient
102
An approach to intergroup conflict reduction that encourages the parties to communicate cooperative intentions, engage in behaviors that are consistent with these intentions, and initiate cooperative responses even in the face of competition
- This is usually recommended when disputants have a prolonged history of conflict, misunderstanding, misperception, and hostility
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction (GRIT)
103
In linguistics, an abstract system of rules that describes how a language works
- Although it is traditionally held to consist of syntax (rules for arranging words in sentences) and morphology (rules affecting the form taken by individual words), phonology and semantics are also included in some modern systems of this
Grammar
104
A mean (numerical average) of a group of means
Grand Mean
105
Any hypothetical neuron in the visual system that is stimulated only by a single highly complex and meaningful stimulus, such as a particular individual (eg; one's grandmother) or a particular well known object (eg; the Sydney Opera House)
- It is an extension of the feature detector concept to a degree that has been dismissed by many as overly simplistic and untenable, although recent research has provided support for the concept by revealing a much higher degree of neuronal specificity than previously believed
Grandmother Cell
106
A type of small, grainlike neuron found in certain layers of the cerebral cortex and cerebellar cortex
Granule Cell
107
A visual representation of the relationship between numbers or quantities, which are plotted on a drawing with reference to axes at right angles (the horizontal X axis and the vertical Y axis) and linked by lines, dots, or the like
Graph
108
A minimal meaningful unit in the writing system of a particular language
- It is usually a letter or fixed combination of letters corresponding to a phoneme in that language
Grapheme
109
The study of the physical characteristics of handwriting, particularly as a means of inferring the writer's psychological state or personality characteristics
- For example, it is sometimes used in personnel selection as a predictor of job performance
- This is based on the premise that writing is a form of expressive behavior, although there is little empirical evidence for its validity
Graphology
110
An involuntary grasping by an individual of anything that touches the palm
- This reflex is typical of infants but in older individuals it may be a sign of frontal lobe damage
Grasp Reflex
111
Any area of neural tissue that is dominated by cell bodies and is devoid of myelin, such as the cerebral cortex
Gray Matter
112
A view of political leadership and historical causation that assumes that history is driven by a small number of exceptional individuals with certain innate characteristics that predispose them for greatness
- A zeitgeist (spirit of the times) view of history, in contrast, supposes that history is largely determined by economics, technological development, and a broad spectrum of social influences
Great Man Theory
113
The anguish experienced after significant loss, usually the death of a beloved person
- This is distinguished from, but a common component of, the process of bereavement and mourning
- Not all bereavements result in a strong grief response; nor is all given public expression
- This often includes physiological distress, anxiety about being separated from the person, confusion, yearning, obsessive dwelling on the past, and apprehension about the future
Grief
114
The provision of advice, information, and psychological support to help individuals whose ability to function has been impaired by someone's death, particularly that of a loved one or friend
- It includes counseling for the grieving process and practical advice concerning arrangements for the funeral and burial of the loved one
- It is sometimes offered by staff in specialized agencies (eg; hospices) or it may be carried out in the context of other counseling
Grief Counseling
115
The theoretical process through which bereaved people gradually reduce or transform their emotional connection to the person who has died and thereby refocus appropriately on their own ongoing lives
- It is not necessary to sever all emotional connections with the dead person
- Instead, adaptive griefwork will help transform the relationship symbolically, as a continuing bond that provides a sense of meaning and value conducive to forming new relationships
Griefwork
116
Describing activities or skills that use large muscles to more the trunk or limbs and control posture to maintain balance
- Examples of these skills include waving an arm, walking, hopping, and running
Gross Motor
117
The relatively homogenous and indistinct background of figure ground perceptions
Ground
118
A set of procedures for the systematic analysis of unstructured qualitative data so as to derive by induction a theory that explains the observed phenomena
Grounded Theory
119
Any collection or assemblage, particularly of items or individuals
- For example, in social psychology the term refers to two or more interdependent individuals who influence one another through social interactions that commonly include structures involving roles and norms, a degree of cohesiveness, and shared goals; in animal behavior it refers to an organized collection of individuals that moves together or otherwise acts to achieve some common goal (eg; protection against predators) that would be less effectively achieved by individual action; and in research it denotes a collection of participants who all experience the same experimental conditions and whose responses are to be compared to the responses of one or more other collections of research participants
Group
120
1. The dynamic rather than static processes, operations, and changes that occur within social groups, which affect patterns of affiliation, communication, conflict, conformity, decision making, influence, leadership, norm formation, and power
2. The field of psychology devoted to the study of groups and group processes
Group Dynamics
121
In statistics, the process of arranging scores in categories, intervals, classes, or ranks
Grouping
122
A conference or meeting in which one or more questioners elicit information from two or more respondents
- This method encourages the interviewees to interact with one another in responding to the interviewer
Group Interview
123
A hypothetical, transcendent consciousness created by the fusion of the individual minds in a collective, such as a nation or race
- This controversial idea assumes that this is greater than the sum of the psychological experiences of the individuals and that it can become so powerful that it can overwhelm the will of the individual
Group Mind
124
The tendency for members of a group discussing an issue to move toward a more extreme version of the positions they held before the discussion began
- As a result, the group as a whole tends to respond in more extreme ways than one would expect given the sentiments of the individual members prior to deliberation
Group Polarization
125
The interpersonal component of a group session, in contrast to the content (such as decisions or information) generated during the session
Group Process
126
Any one of a number of cognitive tendencies that contribute to an overvaluing of one's group, particularly the tendency to credit the group for its successes but to blame external factors for its failures (the ultimate attribution error)
Group Serving Bias
127
A theory of personality development proposing that children are primarily socialized by their peers and that the influences of parents and teachers are filtered through children's peer groups
- According to this theory, children seek to be like their peers rather than like their parents
Group Socialization Theory
128
A test designed to be administered to several individuals simultaneously
Group Test
129
Treatment of psychological problems in which two or more participants interact with each other on both an emotional and a cognitive level, in the presence of one or more psychotherapists who serve as catalysts, facilitators, or interpreters
- The approaches of groups vary, but in general they aim to provide an environment in which problems and concerns can be shared in an atmosphere of mutual respect and understanding
- This seeks to enhance self respect, deepen self understanding, and improve interpersonal relationships
Group Therapy
130
A strong concurrence seeking tendency that interferes with effective group decision making
- Symptoms include apparent unanimity, illusions of invulnerability and moral correctness, biased perceptions of the outgroup, interpersonal pressure, self censorship, and defective decision making strategies
Groupthink
131
Any period of accelerated physical development, especially the pubescent growth spurt
Growth Spurt
132
A process in which the influences of social partners and sociocultural practices combine in various ways to provide children and other learners with direction and support, while the learners themselves also shape their learning engagements
- It occurs not only during explicit instruction but also during routine activities and communication of everyday life
Guided Participation
133
A personal principle that serves as a guideline by which an individual can understand and evaluate his or her experiences and determine his or her lifestyle
- In individuals considered to be in good or reasonable mental health, this is assumed to approach reality and be adaptive
- In those who are not, it is assumed to be largely unconscious, unrealistic, and nonadaptive
Guiding Fiction
134
A self conscious emotion characterized by a painful sense of having done (or thought) something that is wrong and often by a readiness to take action designed to undo or mitigate this wrong
Guilt
135
A court judgement that may be made in some states when defendants plead insanity
- Defendants found guilty but mentally ill are treated in a mental hospital until their mental health is restored; they then serve the remainder of their sentence in the appropriate correctional facility
Guilty but Mentally III
136
The sense of taste
Gustation
137
The primary structures and processes involved in an organism’s detection of and responses to taste stimuli
- This includes lingual papillae, taste buds and taste cells, taste transduction, neural impulses and pathways, and associated brain areas and their functions
Gustatory System
138
A ridged or raised portion of the cerebral cortex, bounded on either side by a sulcus
Gyrus
