Gender Flashcards

Question

Physical Characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome * List the physical characteristics

Answer 1

* Reduced body hair, breast development, softer/rounder body shape * Long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals, problems with co-ordination, general clumsiness * Susceptible to health problems, more commonly found in females such as breast cancer

Answer 2

* Linked to poorly developed language skills and reading ability * Tend to be passive and shy, lack interest in sexual activity * Do not cope well with stress, exhibit problems with memory and problem solving

Answer 3

* 1 in 500 females have this disorder * Caused by absence of X chromosome (XO), have 45 rather than 46 chromosomes * This results in developmental abnormalities and infertility

Answer 4

* Do not have menstrual cycle, ovaries do not develop leads to infertility * Do not develop breasts, broad “shield” chest, low set ears, webbed neck * High waist-to-hip ratio, physically immature, retain appearance of prepubescent girls

Answer 5

* Higher-than-average reading ability * Performance on spatial, visual memory, mathematical tasks often lower than average * Tend to be socially immature, trouble relating to peers, difficulty “fitting in”

Answer 6

* Nature-nurture debate * Counterpoint (Could be nurture) * Real-world application (Herlihy et al 2011) * Sampling issue (Boada et al 2009)

Answer 7

* Strength, Contribution to nature-nurture debate * Comparing people with syndrome with typical individuals, possible to see psych and behv differences between two groups * For example, people with Turner syndrome, higher verbal ability, talk more than “typical” girls * Differences have bio basis, direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure * Supports view that innate “nature” influences have powerful effect on psychology and behaviour

Answer 8

* Relationship between syndromes and atypical chromosomal patterns not causal * May be environmental and social influences more responsible for behv differences observed * Social immaturity may arise from being treated “immaturely” * Peers, Parents etc may react in way that encourages immature behaviour * Indirect impact upon performance at school (hence specific learning developmental problems identified) * Suggests it’s wrong to assume psych and behv differences are due to just nature, could also be nurture

Answer 9

* Strength of research, its application to managing the syndromes * Continued research likely to lead to earlier, more accurate diagnoses of syndromes * Also, more positive outcomes in future * Herlihy et al (2011) study of 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome * Showed those who identified and treated from young age experienced significant benefits in terms of managing syndrome compared to people diagnosed in adulthood * Suggests increased awareness has useful real-world application

Answer 10

* Limitation, sampling issue * In order to identify characteristics of XXY and XO individuals, necessary to identify large number of individuals to build database * Full range of characteristics seen from mild to severe * In general, only people with most severe symptoms identified * Therefore, picture of typical symptoms may be distorted * Boada et al (2009) reports that prospective studies produced more accurate picture of characteristics * Many individuals with Klinefelter’s do not experience significant cog or psych problems * Many highly successful academically and in their personal lives and careers * Suggests typical picture of syndrome may well be exaggerated

Answer 11

There are two cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory of gender and Gender Schema Theory (GST).

Answer 12

* Theory based on idea that child’s understanding of gender more sophisticated with age * This includes appropriate gender roles behaviours and attitudes * Link to age not experience, its bio maturation (brain matures, thinking matures) * Understanding of gender parallel to intellectual development as child matures biologically * 3 stages, ages suggested approximate, reflects transition between stages is gradual not sudden * The 3 stages are Gender identity, Gender stability and Gender constancy

Answer 13

* Age 2, child able to correctly identify themselves as boy or girl (Gender identity) * Age 3, most can identify other people and correctly respond to questions * Example of question, “Which of these like you?”, pictures shown of males and females * Understanding is only simple labelling at this stage, often do not view gender as fixed * Example, 2-year-old boy says “Grow up to be a mummy”

Answer 14

* Age 4, realisation always stay same gender over time (Gender stability) * This logic not applied to other people, still confused by external changes in appearance * Example, man long hair, describe them as woman * Also believe people change gender, engage activities associated with different gender * Examples, Female builder, Male nurse

Answer 15

* Age 6, recognises gender constant across time and situations * This understanding applied to other people’s gender as well as their own * No longer fooled by outward appearance, male in dress still man (may find it unusual) * Child begins to seek gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate * According to Kohlberg, once child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender * Embark on active search for evidence that confirms that concept * This leads to a tendency towards gender stereotyping at this age

Answer 16

* Research support (Damon 1977, Slabby and Frey 1975) * Counterpoint (Bussey and Bandura 1999, Campbell 2004) * Methodological issues (Bem 1989) * Cross Cultural support (Munroe et al 1984)

Answer 17

* Strength, evidence to suggest gender stereotyping emerges around age 6 * Damon (1977) told children story about George, boy who like to play with dolls * Children asked to comment, 4-year-olds said its fine * 6-year-olds thought it was wrong, demonstrating gender stereotyping (rules) * Suggest children who achieve constancy form rigid stereotypes on gender appropriate behaviour * Also, evidence supporting the gender constancy stage * Slabby and Frey (1975), children watched video male female doing same tasks * Young children looked both equally, older looked at model who was same sex (role model) * Suggests that Kohlberg was correct, more reliable (Also consider opposite, Imposed etic)

Answer 18

* Other research challenges idea that gender stereotyping only develops at age 6 * Bussey and Bandura (1999) found children young as 4 reported * “Feel good” playing gender appropriate toys, “bad” when doing opposite * Contradicts Kohlberg, suggests Kohlberg was wrong * Campbell (2004), longitudinal study (same ppts) 56 children ages 2 and 3 * Sat with parent, shown pictures, asked to point to “girls” toy, “boys” toy * 53% point to correct photo age 2, 94% point to correct photo age 3 * Suggests Kohlberg’s theory is weak, out of date (lacks temporal validity) * Environmental factors same (Nurture), Same children (Good reliability)

Answer 19

* Limitation, supporting research poor methodology to assess gender constancy * Bem (1989) criticised methodology used in studies linking gender and cog development * Key test in such studies, child understands gender stays same despite changes to appearance and context * Bem argued best way to identify males’ females through physical differences (Genitalia) * In her study, demonstrated 40% children (age 3-5) demonstrated constancy if shown naked photos * Child therefore based judgment on more than clothing * Suggests typical way of testing may misrepresent what younger children actually know * Younger children may also lack the vocabulary to express their understanding

Answer 20

* Strength, cross cultural support of Kohlberg’s theory * Munroe et al (1984) studied children across cultures * Found children progress through same stages outline by Kohlberg * Suggests sequence may be biologically driven, not down to cultural and social norms * Suggests gender development more Nature than Nurture * Suggests that Kohlberg’s Theory has good ecological validity, can be generalised universally

Answer 21

* Martin and Halverson’s (1981), cognitive developmental theory * Argues children’s understanding of gender changes with age (Like Kohlberg’s theory) * Shares Kohlberg’s view that children develop understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning rather than passively observing, imitating role models

Answer 22

* Schema, mental constructs that develop via experience (some present at birth in basic form) * Used by cog system to organise knowledge around particular topics * Gender schema, generalised representation of everything we know in relation to gender and stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour * Once child established gender identity, around age 2-3, begin search environment for info that encourages development of gender schema * Contrasts Kohlberg’s view (Process only begins after 3 stages, around age 7 with gender constancy)

Answer 23

* Gender schema includes wide range of behvs and personality traits * Young children, schema likely to be formed around stereotypes (boys trucks girls dolls) * Provide framework that directs experience and child’s understanding of itself (“I am boy I play with trucks”) * Age 6, fixed stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender * For this reason, children likely to misremember, disregard info that does not fit with existing schema

Answer 24

* Children tend to have better understanding of the schema appropriate to their own gender (ingroup) * Consistent with idea, children pay more attention to info relevant to their gender identity rather than other group (outgroup) * Age 8, elaborate schema for both genders develops as opposed to just their own * Ingroup identity increases child’s level of self-esteem

Answer 25

* Research support (Martin and Halverson’s 1983) * Earlier gender identity (Zosuls et al 2009) * Counterpoint (Specific ages) * Cultural Differences

Answer 26

* Strength, key principles of GST are supported by evidence * Martin and Halverson’s (1983) own study, found Age 6 under more likely remember photos of stereotypically gender-appropriate behv (women wash dishes) than photos of gender-inappropriate behv (women fix car) * When tested a week later above results found, child tend to change gender of person carrying out gender-inappropriate activity in photos when asked to recall them, gender behv was now appropriate * Supports GST, predicts children under 6 years would do this (Contrast to Kohlberg predicted only happen when older)

Answer 27

* Limitation, gender identity probably develops earlier than suggested * Longitudinal study 82 children (Zosuls et al 2009), looked at onset of gender identity * Data obtained from twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language age 9 to 21 months * This and video taped analysis of children at play used * Key measure of gender identity, how and when child labelled themselves “boy” or “girl”, occurred on average at 19 months (almost as soon as child begins to communicate) * Suggests children actually have gender identity before this just don’t communicate it * Suggests M and H underestimated ability to use gender labels about themselves

Answer 28

* May not be appropriate to argue about specific ages * M and H suggest key point is shifts in child’s thinking, ages are averages not absolutes * Possible children move through stages quicker or slower * Sequence of development that is more important * Suggests Z et al findings not fundamental criticism of the theory

Answer 29

* Another strength, gender schema can account for cultural differences in stereotypically gender appropriate behaviour * Cherry (2019), gender schema not only influence how people process info, also what counts as culturally appropriate gender behaviour * Traditional cultures, believe women carer, men provider raise children, form schema consistent with this view * Societies where perceptions of gender less rigid boundaries, children more likely to acquire more fluid gender schema * M and H Theory can explain how gender schema is transmitted between members of society * Also, can explain how cultural differences in gender stereotypes comes about * Suggests that GST has good validity, can explain cultural differences

Answer 30

The psychodynamic explanation of gender development is Freuds psychoanalytic theory

Answer 31

* Freud’s (1905) gender developmental theory, children pass through the psychosexual stages * At the phallic stage, gender development occurs (age 3-6) * Prior to this, children have no concept of gender identity, no understanding of male and female * Therefore, they do not categorise themselves or others in this way * During phallic stage, child experiences Oedipus complex (boys) or Electra complex (girls) * This is crucial in the formation of gender identity

Answer 32

* Boys want to have sex with mother, have jealous, murderous hatred for father * Boy recognises father more powerful, fears castration by his father for having feelings towards mother (castration anxiety) * To resolve this, boy gives up love for mother, identifies with father

Answer 33

* Girls experience penis envy, mother and girl competition for father’s love * Develop double resentment (mother is a love rival, blamed mother for having no penis) * Daughter believes they were castrated by mother at the same time mother castrated herself * Concept of Electra complex came from Carl Jung * Suggested girls accepts they will never have penis overtime, substitutes this with desire to have children * As a result, they identify with their mothers

Answer 34

* Both sexes identify with same gender parent to resolve respective complexes * Adopt attitudes and values of same sex parent * Take on gender identity as well, Freud referred to this process as internalisation * Receive “second hand” gender identity at end of phallic stage * Does not happen gradually, they just obtain gender identity at once there and then

Answer 35

* Freud’s evidence for existence of Oedipus complex * 5-year-old boy, morbid fear of being bitten by a horse * Stemmed from incident, horse died in street * Freud’s interpretation, Hans fear represented castration * Freud suggested Hans transferred fear of father onto horses * Done via unconscious defence mechanism, displacement

Answer 36

* The Oedipus complex (Rekers and Morey 1990) * Counterpoint (Bos and Sandfort 2010) * Female development (Karen Horney 1942) * Pseudoscientific (Popper 1959) * Nature of development (Freud and Kohlberg)

Answer 37

* Strength, support for role of Oedipus complex in gender development * Freud’s explanation means “normal” development for boys relies on having at least one male parent * Rekers and Morey (1990), rated gender identity of 49 boys (age 3-11), based on interview with families and children * Those judged as “gender disturbed”, 75% had no bio father or sub father living with them * Suggests being raised with no father has negative impact upon gender identity, in line with Freud

Answer 38

* Generally, relationship between absent fathers, problems gender identity not supported * Bos and Sandfort (2010), compared data 63 children of lesbians, 68 children hetero families * Children raised by lesbians, less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, less likely to assume own gender is superior, no difference in psychosocial adjustment or gender identity * Contradicts Freud, suggests fathers not necessary for healthy gender identity development

Answer 39

* Limitation, inadequate account of women’s development * Jung (Freud’s contemporary) theorised on girls’ development; Freud focused heavily on Oedipus complex * Freud lived in androcentric Victorian era; men held power * Karen Horney (1942), argued more powerful emotion than penis envy, men’s “womb envy” * This is a reaction to women’s ability to nurture and sustain life * Horney argued penis envy and womb envy, result of cultural not bio factors * Challenges idea that women’s gender development founded on desire to want to be like a man (androcentric bias)

Answer 40

* Limitation, explanation lacks scientific credibility * Freud criticised, used subjective case studies, his concepts untestable (unconscious) * Contrasts with other explanations, based on objective, verifiable evidence from lab studies * According to Popper (1959), makes Freud’s theory pseudoscientific (not genuine science) * Ideas cannot be falsified, questions validity of theory, not based on scientific evidence

Answer 41

* Freud argued children do not begin to show gender appropriate behaviour till after age 6 * Somewhat agrees with Kohlberg, suggested children act in gender appropriate way after gender constancy (age 6) * However, Kohlberg suggests concept that gender gradually develops * Freud in contrast states gender is acquired in one fell swoop, all at once, no build up * Freud’s view clearly overly simplistic, unlikely that a complex concept like gender arrives “second-hand” and at once as suggested by Freud

Answer 42

* SLT acknowledges role that social context plays in development, states all behv (including gender related) learned from observing others * Attention to influence of enviro (nurture) in shaping gender development * Includes significant others (parent peer teacher), wider influence of culture and the media

Answer 43

* Children more likely to be reinforced (praised), when demonstrating behv that is stereo gender appropriate * Boys encourage to be active, girls rewarded for being passive and gentle * The way they are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behv is called differential reinforcement * Differential reinforcement, child learns their gender identity (I am boy) * Child more likely to repeat behv that is reinforced (rewarded), may be direct or indirect

Answer 44

* Consequences of other persons behv favourable, more likely to be imitated by child * Little girl sees mom get compliment when wearing make-up, she tries to repeat this behv * Consequences are unfavourable, less likely to be imitated * Boy sees another boy get teased for displaying feminine behv, behv unlikely to be copied

Answer 45

* Identification, child attaches themselves to person “like me”, “I want to be” * Person has qualities child sees as desirable, known as role models * Could be present in immediate enviro (teacher, parent etc), or present within the media (footballer) * Role models tend to be attractive, have high status, same gender as child * Modelling, precise demonstration of behv that may be imitated by observer * Mother may model stereo fem behv when tidying house, prepare dinner * Little girl copies this, modelling the behv she witnessed

Answer 46

* Cog processes that are central to learning of gender behaviour * Attention, boy wants to emulate footballer, close attention to what footballer does * Retention, remembers skills of footballer, tries reproduce this on playground * Motivation, Desire to repeat, want to be like “his hero” (identification) * Motor reproduction, boy must be physically capable of doing so

Answer 47

* Research support (Smith and Llyod 1978) * Counterpoint * No developmental sequence * Cultural changes * Identification

Answer 48

* Strength, key principles of SLT supported by evidence * Smith and Llyod (1978), babies (4-6 months, irrespective of actual sex), dressed half time boy clothes other half girls’ clothes * When observed interacting with adults, “boys” more likely given hammer rattle, encourage to be adventurous and active * “Girls” more likely given cuddly doll, told they are “pretty”, reinforced for being passive * Suggests gender appropriate behv stamped in at early age, through differential reinforcement, support SLT

Answer 49

* Differential reinforcement, may not be cause of gender differences * Adults may be responding to innate gender differences, already there * Boy encouraged to be more active, consequence of the fact they are naturally more active anyway, hormonal differences * Suggests SLT only part of explanation of how children acquire gender-related behaviour

Answer 50

* Limitation, does not provide adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age * General implication of SLT, modelling of gender-appropriate behv can occur at any age (birth onwards) * Illogical, 2-year-old learn same way as 9-year-old * Suggests influence of age and maturation on learning gender concepts, not factor considered by SLT

Answer 51

* Strength, SLT can explain cultural changes in stereo gender appropriate behaviour * Less of clear-cut distinction between masculine and feminine today compared to before * No corresponding change in basic biology of people within same period * Shift may be better explained by SLT than a bio approach * Shift in social expectation, cultural norms, new forms of gender behv unlikely to be punished, may be reinforced * Shows SLT can explain cultural changes in gender behv

Answer 52

* Strength, SLT can explain cultural changes in stereo gender appropriate behaviour * Less of clear-cut distinction between masculine and feminine today compared to before * No corresponding change in basic biology of people within same period * Shift may be better explained by SLT than a bio approach * Shift in social expectation, cultural norms, new forms of gender behv unlikely to be punished, may be reinforced * Shows SLT can explain cultural changes in gender behv

Answer 53

* Freud, same gender parent necessary for child to gain “second hand” gender identity * SLT, multiple gender-appropriate role models alongside same gender parent * Same gender parent important, not “be all end all” in terms of influence * Absence of same gender parent, child model gender appropriate behv elsewhere * Many same gender role models within environment or media * Suggest key people might be a key influence but not the sole influence

Answer 54

Look into how Culture and Media both affect gender roles

Answer 55

* Cross-cultural research valuable contribution to nature-nurture debate in Gender * If particular gender-role behv consistent across different cultures, may conclude this represents an innate bio difference between males and females * If some gender-role behv culturally specific, assume influence of shared norms and socialisation is decisive

Answer 56

* Cross-cultural studies conducted in Papua New Guinea by Mead (1935) * Arapesh gentle and responsive (similar to stereotype of F in industrialised societies) * Mundugumor aggressive and hostile (similar to stereotype of M in industrialised societies) * Tchambuli women dominant, organised village, men passive considered “decorative” (reverse stereotype in industrialised societies) * Suggests may not be direct bio relationship between sex and gender, gender roles may be culturally determined * Later work, Mead admitted she underestimated universal nature of gender typical behv * She argued extent innate behv expressed result of cultural norms

Answer 57

* Buss (1995) found consistent patterns in mate preference (gender-role behv) in 37 countries across all continents * All cultures, women wanted men with wealth/resources men wanted physically attractive young women * Munroe and Munroe (1975), revealed in most societies, division of labour organised along gender lines * Men “breadwinners”, Women “nurturers”

Answer 58

* Research support (Hofstede 2001) * Mead’s Research (Freeman 1983) * Nature or Nurture

Answer 59

* Strength, influence of culture on changing gender roles supported by evidence * Hofstede (2001) argued industrialised cultures changing status and expectations of women have allowed increase of women in the workplace as opposed to usual domestics * In advanced industrialised societies, traditional stereotypes are being broken down * Traditional societies, women still “house-maker” as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures * Suggests gender roles determined by cultural context

Answer 60

* Limitation, Mead’s research criticised * Mead accused of making generalisations based on short period of study * Freeman (1983), follow up study of people of Papua New Guinea after Mead investigation * Argues Meads findings flawed, Mead misled by some ppts, Mead preconceptions of what she would find influenced reading of events (Observer bias, Investigator bias, Ethnocentrism, Imposed etic) * Suggests Mead’s interpretations may not be objective, questions conclusions she drew

Answer 61

* Some elements of gender role behv appear to be universal, others culturally specific * Suggest gender best seen as an interaction of nature and nurture (Interactionist approach)

Answer 62

Media provides role models, children may identify, want to imitate them, it also provides rigid stereotypes as well as self-efficacy.

Answer 63

* Evidence that media provides clear and rigid gender stereotypes * Bussey and Bandura (1999) found the following depictions in media * Men are independent, ambitious and “advice givers” * Women are dependent, unambitious and “advice seekers” * Furnham and Farragher (2000), men more likely shown in professional context, women shown in domestic settings * Suggests media may play a role in reinforcing social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour

Answer 64

* Media gives info to men and women about likely success or otherwise of adopting behaviours * Seeing others perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases child’s beliefs, they are capable doing behaviours in future (self-efficacy) * Mitra et al 2019 study that analysed attitudes of people in India who watched programme designed to challenge deep-rooted gender stereotypes * Detective drama, ran 78 episodes, girls who watched more likely to see themselves as capable to work outside home than non-viewers * Suggests self-efficacy changed as a result of media influence

Answer 65

* Cultivation Theory (Bond and Drogos 2014) * Child does not blindly consume media implications (Durkin 1985) * Counter stereotypes (Pingree 1978)

Answer 66

* Strength of research, has theoretical basis * Theory argues more time individual spends online/media; more likely they believe this reflects into social reality * Bond and Drogos (2014), found +ve correlation between time watching reality TV and permissive attitudes towards casual sex * Effect still true when researchers-controlled influence of factors such as existing sexual attitudes, parental attitudes and religious beliefs * Suggests media “cultivates” perception of reality, affects gender behv

Answer 67

* Limitation, may not be a causal relationship (media influence does not cause gender norms in child) * Durkin (1985), argues young children are not passive and uncritical recipients of media messages * Norms in family bigger determinant on gender attitudes and behv * If media confirms existing gender norms held by family, reinforces these norms in child’s mind * If it claims the opposite or something else, likely to be ignored or rejected “Can’t be” * Suggests media influence secondary influence to other influences such as family

Answer 68

* Evidence media can have positive role in changing gender-role stereotypes through counter-stereotypes * Present people in gender-inappropriate ways (Disney’s Brave), break down cultural norms * May be successful, “present new normal” and increase self-efficacy of children * Pingree (1978), found gender stereotyping reduced in school children (3rd Grade) when shown adverts of women in non-stereotypical role * Success dependent on nature of audience, boys in 8th grade, stereotypes stronger * Boys wanted to maintain their viewpoint, could be because they wanted to show rebellion or non-conformity in front of peers * Suggests success dependent on who is receiving the message * Rejection or success heavily dependent on induvial differences of audience * Counter-stereotypes must therefore be carefully considered, take account of those who are watching

Answer 69

This is an abnormality in gender development which can cause gender dysphoria.

Answer 70

* Some people experience mismatch, bio sex at birth and gender identity * Gender dysphoria, people that don’t identify with sex given at birth * Gender dysphoria is a source of stress and discomfort * Recognised as a psych disorder in DSM-5

Answer 71

* The two biological explanations for gender dysphoria are brain sex theory and genetic factors * Intersex conditions excluded from categorisation of gender dysphoria

Answer 72

* Suggests gender dysphoria has basis in brain structure (the bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BST)) * Structure involved in emotional responses, larger in men than women, found that transgender females have female sized structure (Kruijver et al 2000) * Suggests people with gender dysphoria have BST size of gender they identify with not bio sex * Fits with reports of trans people who feel they are born wrong sex at early age (Zhou et al 1995) * Follow up study, 6 trans people showed average BST neuron number in female range (Kruijver et al 2000)

Answer 73

* Coolidge et al (2002), 157 twin pairs (96 MZ, 61 DZ) assessed for GD * Found 2.3% of the sample demonstrated atypical gender development, * 62% of the variance could be explained by genetic factors, suggests strong heritable component to GD * Heylens et al (2012) 23 MZ compared with 21 DZ, one of each pair diagnosed with GD * Nine (39%) MZ twins concordant for GD, none of DZ concordant for GD * Indicates role of genetic factors in development of GD * Concordance refers to the probability of one twin having disorder given the other has it as a percentage

Answer 74

* Contradictory evidence (Hulshoff Pot et al 2006) * Other brain differences (Rametti et al 2011) * Socially sensitive research

Answer 75

* Limitation, brain sex theory central claims challenged * Hulshoff Pot et al (2006), studied trans ppl with MRI scans taken during hormone treatment * Showed size of BST changed significantly during hormone treatment * Kruijver et al and Zhou et al examined people post mortem and after receiving hormone treatment * Suggests difference in BST may be effect of hormone therapy not cause of GD

Answer 76

* Strength, may be other differences associated with GD * Rametti et al (2011) studied white matter, regional differences in proportion of this in male and female brains * Analysed trans M and F before hormone treatment, found amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to gender they identified with rather than biological sex * Suggests there are early differences in brains of transgender individuals

Answer 77

* For some knowing there is a bio basis to GD may be a relief, removes responsibility from person when it is a medical category requiring treatment * They may be less likely to assume the way they feel is “their fault” * Others object to labelling GD as a mental disorder, risks stigmatising those subject to GD as ill or sick rather than just “different”, ppl may become subjects to prejudice or discrimination due to label * Suggests research in GD may shaped how society views the label, how ppl may be viewed with this label * Researchers therefore should avoid reinforcing damaging stereotypes were possible

Answer 78

The two social explanations for GD are social constructionism and psychanalytic theory.

Answer 79

* This perspective argues gender identity does not reflect underlying bio differences between people, instead, these concepts “invented” by societies * The gender “confusion” individuals with GD face caused by societies forcing people to be man or woman, pick side act accordingly * GD not a pathological condition according to this perspective, it’s a social phenomenon caused by people needing to pick a particular path (man or woman) * McClintock (2015), investigated genetic condition in the Sambia of New Guinea * Some bio males categorized as girls at birth, they have a labia and clitoris * Puberty, genitals change due to increase of testosterone, testes descend, clit become penis * Common in Sambia, accepted that some people men, some women and others females-then-males * When culture had contact with other cultures, F-T-M judged as pathological form of GD

Answer 80

* Ovesey and Person (1973) emphasise social relationships in family as cause of GD * GD in bio males caused by boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety pre phallic stage (before gender identity established) * Boy fantasises of symbiotic fusion with mother to relieve anxiety, danger separation removed * Boy “becomes” mother, adopts woman gender identity * Stoller (1973), interviews with GD bio males, had overly close relationships with mothers * Suggests strong female identification thus conflicted gender identity in long term

Answer 81

* Social constructionism * Psychanalytic Theory (Rekers 1986) * Different Outcomes (Drummond et al 2008)

Answer 82

* Strength, not all cultures have two genders, fa’afafine of Samoa recognise more than two genders * Challenges traditional classifications of male and female * Suggests cultural understanding beginning to “catch up” with lived experience of many * Suggests gender identity and dysphoria best seen as social construction rather than biological fact

Answer 83

* Limitation, issues with psychoanalytic theory of GD * Does not provide account of GD in bio females, only applies to trans women * Rekers (1986), GD in bio men more likely associated with absence of father rather than fear of separation from mother * Suggests psychoanalytic theory does not provided compressive account of GD, incomplete

Answer 84

* Some who experience GD will decide to have gender reassignment surgery in the future * However, proportion of people who experience early dysphoric feelings in childhood do not do so as adults * Drummond et al (2008), 25 girls with GD, only 12% (3/25) had GD in follow up at ages of 24 * Suggests surgery before age of consent must be carefully managed with appropriate support and safeguards * Many uncomfortable with idea that child receives hormone treatment that may cause permanent changes in their physicality’s * However, some early medical intervention may be the only way to prevent depression and possible suicide in extreme cases

Gender Flashcards

(108 cards)