Gender Flashcards
1
Q
Key Concepts- Sex
- What status does sex refer to?
- What is it a result of, what does this mean?
- How is it determined?
- What does this influence?
A
- Sex refers to persons biological status, Male or Female
- It is innate, biologically determined, result of nature
- Determined by pair of sex chromosomes, Male (XY), Female (XX)
- These influence hormonal differences as well as anatomy differences
- This includes hair growth, reproductive organs, body shape
2
Q
Key Concepts- Gender
- What status does gender refer to?
- What is included in assessing masculinity and femininity?
- What heavily influences this?
- What is gender a result of?
- What is gender considered to be, what is this?
- Is gender fixed?
- What could influence an individual’s masculinity or femininity?
A
- Gender refers to psychological status, masculine or feminine
- Includes attitudes, roles and behaviours associated with “being man”, “being woman”
- These are heavily influenced by social norms, cultural expectations
- Gender partly environmentally determined, result of nurture
- Gender assigned, social construct rather than biological fact
- A social construct is an idea created and accepted by people in a society
- Gender not fixed (partially environmentally determined), fluid and open to change
- Individual becomes more masculine or feminine depending on social context and the norms and expectations associated with it
3
Q
Key Concepts- Gender dysphoria
- What is gender dysphoria?
- How may an individual deal with this?
A
- For most bio sex and gender identity correspond (bio male masculine, bio female feminine)
- Some experience gender dysphoria, bio sex not reflect way they feel inside, gender identity
- May choose to have gender reassignment surgery in order to bring sexual identity in line with gender identity
4
Q
Key Concepts- Sex-role stereotypes
- What is sex-role stereotypes?
- Who reinforces these?
- What could this lead to?
A
- Set of shared expectations, people in society or culture hold about what is acceptable or unusual behaviour for men and women
- Reinforced by parents, peers, media, schools.
- Could lead to sexist assumptions, e.g., woman can’t cope with position of high responsibility
5
Q
Defining Androgyny
- What is Androgyny, give an example?
- What did Sandra Bem develop?
- What did this suggest, what was the reason for this?
- Who can be classified as androgynous?
A
- A personality type that is characterised as a balance of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes and behaviours
- For example, man or women competitive (masculine) but also caring (feminine)
- Sandra Bem developed method of measuring androgyny
- Suggested high androgyny associated with psychological well being
- Individuals who are balanced better equipped to adapt to a range of situations
- Non-androgynous people would find this difficult, narrower range of traits to draw on
- Both men and women can be classified as androgynous
6
Q
Measuring Androgyny, The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
- Describe the procedure of BSRI (1974)
- How were scores classified?
- When is an individual classified as Masculine?
- When is an individual classified as Feminine?
- When is an individual classified as Androgynous?
- When is an individual classified as Undifferentiated?
A
- Sandra Bem’s (1974) scale presents 20 masculine characteristics, 20 feminine characteristics and 20 neutral traits
- Respondents rate themselves, 7-point rating scale for each item (1 “never true of me”, 7 “always true of me”)
- Scores classified on the basis of two dimensions masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated
- High Masculine Low Feminine- Masculine
- Low Masculine High Feminine- Feminine
- High Masculine High Feminine- Androgynous
- Low Masculine Low Feminine- Undifferentiated
7
Q
Evaluation of BSRI
A
- Quantitative approach (Bem 1974, Spencer 1984)
- Validity and Reliability (Bem 1974)
- Counterpoint (Temporal Validity)
- Self-awareness
- Reductionist (Adams and Sherer 1985)
8
Q
Quantitative approach (Bem 1974, Spencer 1984)
A
- Strength of Bem’s work, androgyny measured quantitatively
- Numerical approach useful to quantify a dependent variable for example
- Spence (1984) argues more to gender than behaviours typical of male or female
- Compromise is combination, for example Personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ) adds another dimension (instrumentally and expressivity)
- Suggest both qualitative and quantitative approaches may be useful for studying different aspects of androgyny
9
Q
Validity and Reliability (Bem 1974)
A
- At the time, appeared to be valid and reliable way of measuring androgyny
- Scale developed, 50 male 50 female rate 200 traits, how much traits represented “maleness” or “femaleness”
- Traits that scored highest in each category became 20 masculine 20 feminine on scale
- BSRI piloted with 1000+ students, results broadly corresponded with ppts own description of their gender identity, demonstrates validity
- Follow up study, smaller sample size same students, similar scores produced one month later, demonstrates test-retest reliability
- Suggests test is both valid and reliable
10
Q
Counterpoint (Temporal Validity)
A
- Developed over 40 years ago, behaviours regarded as “typical” and “acceptable” in relation to gender changed significantly
- Scale made up of stereotypical ideas, outdated, only used people from US
- Notions of maleness and femaleness may not be shared across all cultures and societies
- Suggest BSRI may lack temporal validity and has low generalisation, not a suitable measure of gender identity today
11
Q
Self-awareness
A
- Limitation of BSRI, people may not have insight into their degree of masculinity, femininity or androgyny
- People rate themselves, relies on people having understanding of their personality and behaviour
- Gender is a social construct, more open to interpretation
- Scoring system is subjective, people’s application of the scale may differ
- Suggests BSRI may not be an objective, scientific way of assessing M, F and A
12
Q
Reductionist (Adams and Sherer 1985)
A
- Assumes that Gender identity is based on a single score
- Multiple factors make up gender identity
- Reductionist, too simplistic
- Adams and Sherer (1985), 101 undergraduate students compared using BSRI
- Found those who scored highly on masculine traits (both male and female) displayed high levels of assertiveness and self-efficacy
- Bem states these traits are primarily associated with androgynous people
- This research therefore contradicts Bem’s statement
13
Q
The role of chromosomes
- What are Genes?
- What are chromosomes made from, what is their role?
- How many chromosomes in the human body, how many pairs?
- What pair of chromosomes determine the biological sex?
- What do normal egg cells have, what does sperm carry?
- How is a babies sex determined?
- What gene does the Y chromosome carry
- What does this gene cause and produce?
A
- Genes are short sections of DNA, determine characteristics of living thing
- Chromosomes are made from DNA, they carry information (info is in the form of genes)
- 46 Chromosomes, 23 Pairs in human body, 23rd pair determines biological sex
- Normal egg cells produced by human ovary have an X chromosome
- Sperm carry X or Y chromosome, baby sex determined by sperm that fertilises the egg
- Y chromosome carries gene called “sex determining region Y” (SRY)
- SRY gene causes testes to develop in XY embryo
- Testes produce androgens (male sex hormones)
14
Q
The role of hormones
- What is gender development influenced by?
- What are hormones, how do they travel in the body?
- What happens prenatally referring to hormones?
- What triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics?
- Give an example of one secondary sexual characteristic
- What is the difference between males and females referring to hormones?
- What is the primary importance in male development?
A
- Gender development comes through the influence of hormones
- Hormones are chemical messengers that affect target organ, circulate in the blood
- Before birth (Prenatally) in womb, hormones act upon brain development, causes development of reproductive organs
- At puberty, burst of hormonal activity triggers development of secondary sexual characteristics (pubic hair)
- Males and Females produce many of same hormones, different concentrations
- Primary importance in, male development is androgynes such as testosterone
15
Q
Testosterone
- What is testosterone?
- What does it control?
- What happens if a genetic male produces no testosterone during foetal development?
- What happens if a genetic female produces testosterone during foetal development?
- What are high levels of testosterone linked to?
- Describe the evolutionary explanation for this
A
- Male hormone, present in small quantities in women
- Controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development
- If genetic male produces no testosterone during this time, no male sex organs appear
- If genetic female produces high levels of testosterone during this time, male sex organs may appear
- High levels testosterone linked to aggression because its adaptive (evolutionary explanation)
- Aggression towards rivals, males compete to mate with fertile female
- Women tend to children, men more likely to take hunter role, success enhance by aggressiveness
16
Q
Oestrogen
- What is oestrogen?
- What does it cause?
- What are these effects referred to as?
- What do researches say about the disorder linked to this?
A
- Female hormone, determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation
- Alongside physical changes, causes heightened emotionality and irritability during the menstrual cycle
- Referred to as premenstrual syndrome (PMS) when effects become diagnosable disorder
- Existence of PMS as a viable medical category is disputed between some researchers
17
Q
Oxytocin
- What does oxytocin do, what does this make possible?
- When is it release in large quantities?
- What does it do to new mothers?
- What is suggested about men referring to oxytocin?
A
- Women typically produce this in much larger amounts than men, result of giving birth
- Hormone stimulates lactation, makes it possible to breastfeed, reduces stress hormone cortisol
- Facilitates bonding, referred to as “love hormone”
- Released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth
- Makes new mothers feel “in love” with child
- Men produce less, however evidence suggests both M and F produce oxytocin in roughly equal amounts during amorous activities (kissing, sex)
18
Q
Evaluation for the role of sex hormones in gender development
A
- Evidence of testosterone (Wang et al 2000)
- Counterpoint (O’Connor et al 2004)
- Social factors ignored (Hofstede et al 2010)
- Reductionist
19
Q
Evidence of testosterone (Wang et al 2000)
- What does this evidence support?
- What is male hypogonadism?
- What was Wang’s procedure?
- What did Wang discover?
- What does this show about testosterone?
A
- Evidence supports the role of sex hormones in gender development in mature males
- Wang et al (2000) confirmed link between increased testosterone and sexual behaviour
- Male hypogonadism, condition where testes fail to produce normal levels of testosterone
- 227 men with this given testosterone therapy for 180 days
- Changes monitored, found improved sexual function, libido and mood
- Demonstrates testosterone exerts a powerful, direct influence on male sexual arousal as well as physical development in adulthood
20
Q
Counterpoint (O’Connor et al 2004)
- What does other evidence of testosterone suggest?
- Describe the procedure of O’Conner et al 2004
- What did he find?
- What does this suggest?
- What type of study was is, evaluate this
A
- Other evidence on effect of testosterone less convincing
- O’Conner et al (2004), double blind, placebo study, increased testosterone levels in healthy young men
- One group given drugs that boost testosterone another given placebo
- Double blind and placebo controls investigator effects and demand characteristics
- No significant increases in interactional (frequency of sex) or non-interactional (sex-drive) components of sexual behaviour
- Experienced no change in aggression or anger levels
- Suggests additional testosterone may have no effect on sexual or aggressive behaviour
- Does not challenge role of testosterone in early development
21
Q
Social factors ignored (Hofstede et al 2010)
- What did Hofstede et al 2010 claim?
- What did these researchers equate?
- Give an example of an advanced capitalist society, describe them
- What does this suggest?
A
- Limitation of bio accounts, ignore role of social factors in gender-related behaviour
- Hofstede et al 2010 claimed gender roles more a consequence of social norms than biology
- Equated notions of masculinity and femininity with whether whole cultures are individualist or collectivist
- Countries place individual competition; independence above needs of community more masculine in their outlook
- Includes advanced capitalist societies (US and UK)
- Traditional masculine traits more highly valued within these societies
- Challenges bio explanations of gender behaviour, suggests social factors more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes
22
Q
Reductionist
- How is role of chromosomes and hormones reductionist?
- Give two alternative explanations not considered
- What does this suggest about gender?
A
- Accounts reduce gender to level of chromosomes and hormones
- Accused of ignoring or underplaying alternative explanations
- Cognitive approach, attention to influence of thought processes, schema
- Psychodynamic approach, attention to importance of childhood experiences, interaction within family
- Areas not adequately explained by biological model
- Suggest gender more complex than biological influences alone
23
Q
Atypical sex chromosome patterns
- Definition
A
This is any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from XX/XY, associated with physical and psychological symptoms
24
Q
Klinefelter’s syndrome
- How much people does this affect?
- Who is affected, what is their chromosome structure?
- What fraction unaware they have the syndrome?
A
- Example of atypical sex chromosome pattern, affects 1 in 600 males
- People affected are males, have anatomy of male but chromosome structure (XXY)
- Two thirds people not aware they have the syndrome
25
Q
Physical Characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome
- List the physical characteristics
A
- Reduced body hair, breast development, softer/rounder body shape
- Long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals, problems with co-ordination, general clumsiness
- Susceptible to health problems, more commonly found in females such as breast cancer
26
Q
Psychological Characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome
- List the psychological characteristics
A
- Linked to poorly developed language skills and reading ability
- Tend to be passive and shy, lack interest in sexual activity
- Do not cope well with stress, exhibit problems with memory and problem solving
27
Q
Turner’s syndrome
- How much people does this affect?
- Who is affected, what is their chromosome structure?
A
- 1 in 500 females have this disorder
- Caused by absence of X chromosome (XO), have 45 rather than 46 chromosomes
- This results in developmental abnormalities and infertility
28
Q
Physical Characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
- List the physical characteristics
A
- Do not have menstrual cycle, ovaries do not develop leads to infertility
- Do not develop breasts, broad “shield” chest, low set ears, webbed neck
- High waist-to-hip ratio, physically immature, retain appearance of prepubescent girls
29
Q
Psychological Characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
- List the psychological characteristics
A
- Higher-than-average reading ability
- Performance on spatial, visual memory, mathematical tasks often lower than average
- Tend to be socially immature, trouble relating to peers, difficulty “fitting in”
30
Q
Evaluation of Atypical sex chromosome patterns
A
- Nature-nurture debate
- Counterpoint (Could be nurture)
- Real-world application (Herlihy et al 2011)
- Sampling issue (Boada et al 2009)
31
Q
Nature-nurture debate
A
- Strength, Contribution to nature-nurture debate
- Comparing people with syndrome with typical individuals, possible to see psych and behv differences between two groups
- For example, people with Turner syndrome, higher verbal ability, talk more than “typical” girls
- Differences have bio basis, direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure
- Supports view that innate “nature” influences have powerful effect on psychology and behaviour
32
Q
Counterpoint (Could be nurture)
A
- Relationship between syndromes and atypical chromosomal patterns not causal
- May be environmental and social influences more responsible for behv differences observed
- Social immaturity may arise from being treated “immaturely”
- Peers, Parents etc may react in way that encourages immature behaviour
- Indirect impact upon performance at school (hence specific learning developmental problems identified)
- Suggests it’s wrong to assume psych and behv differences are due to just nature, could also be nurture
33
Q
Real-world application (Herlihy et al 2011)
A
- Strength of research, its application to managing the syndromes
- Continued research likely to lead to earlier, more accurate diagnoses of syndromes
- Also, more positive outcomes in future
- Herlihy et al (2011) study of 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome
- Showed those who identified and treated from young age experienced significant benefits in terms of managing syndrome compared to people diagnosed in adulthood
- Suggests increased awareness has useful real-world application
34
Q
Sampling issue (Boada et al 2009)
A
- Limitation, sampling issue
- In order to identify characteristics of XXY and XO individuals, necessary to identify large number of individuals to build database
- Full range of characteristics seen from mild to severe
- In general, only people with most severe symptoms identified
- Therefore, picture of typical symptoms may be distorted
- Boada et al (2009) reports that prospective studies produced more accurate picture of characteristics
- Many individuals with Klinefelter’s do not experience significant cog or psych problems
- Many highly successful academically and in their personal lives and careers
- Suggests typical picture of syndrome may well be exaggerated
35
Q
Cognitive Explanations of Gender development
- What are the two cognitive explanations of gender development?
A
There are two cognitive explanations of gender development, Kohlberg’s cognitive-developmental theory of gender and Gender Schema Theory (GST).
36
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory- Stages in Development
- What idea is the theory based on?
- What is the link to age?
- What is the understanding of gender parallel to?
- What are the 3 stages?
- Describe transition between stages
A
- Theory based on idea that child’s understanding of gender more sophisticated with age
- This includes appropriate gender roles behaviours and attitudes
- Link to age not experience, its bio maturation (brain matures, thinking matures)
- Understanding of gender parallel to intellectual development as child matures biologically
- 3 stages, ages suggested approximate, reflects transition between stages is gradual not sudden
- The 3 stages are Gender identity, Gender stability and Gender constancy
37
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory- Gender identity (Stage 1)
- What is the child able to do at age ()?
- What are most children able to do at age ()?
- How far is their understanding at this stage?
- Give an example
A
- Age 2, child able to correctly identify themselves as boy or girl (Gender identity)
- Age 3, most can identify other people and correctly respond to questions
- Example of question, “Which of these like you?”, pictures shown of males and females
- Understanding is only simple labelling at this stage, often do not view gender as fixed
- Example, 2-year-old boy says “Grow up to be a mummy”
38
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory- Gender stability (Stage 2)
- What does the child realise at age ()?
- How do they apply this logic, what does this mean?
- What do they also believe at this stage?
A
- Age 4, realisation always stay same gender over time (Gender stability)
- This logic not applied to other people, still confused by external changes in appearance
- Example, man long hair, describe them as woman
- Also believe people change gender, engage activities associated with different gender
- Examples, Female builder, Male nurse
39
Q
Kohlberg’s Theory- Gender constancy (Stage 3)
- What does the child recognise/realise at age ()?
- How do they apply this logic, what does this mean?
- What does the child begin to seek at this stage?
- What happens when child has a developed and internalised concept of gender?
- What does this lead to?
A
- Age 6, recognises gender constant across time and situations
- This understanding applied to other people’s gender as well as their own
- No longer fooled by outward appearance, male in dress still man (may find it unusual)
- Child begins to seek gender appropriate role models to identify with and imitate
- According to Kohlberg, once child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender
- Embark on active search for evidence that confirms that concept
- This leads to a tendency towards gender stereotyping at this age
40
Q
Evaluation for Kohlberg’s Theory
A
- Research support (Damon 1977, Slabby and Frey 1975)
- Counterpoint (Bussey and Bandura 1999, Campbell 2004)
- Methodological issues (Bem 1989)
- Cross Cultural support (Munroe et al 1984)
41
Q
Research support (Damon 1977, Slabby and Frey 1975)
A
- Strength, evidence to suggest gender stereotyping emerges around age 6
- Damon (1977) told children story about George, boy who like to play with dolls
- Children asked to comment, 4-year-olds said its fine
- 6-year-olds thought it was wrong, demonstrating gender stereotyping (rules)
- Suggest children who achieve constancy form rigid stereotypes on gender appropriate behaviour
- Also, evidence supporting the gender constancy stage
- Slabby and Frey (1975), children watched video male female doing same tasks
- Young children looked both equally, older looked at model who was same sex (role model)
- Suggests that Kohlberg was correct, more reliable (Also consider opposite, Imposed etic)
42
Q
Counterpoint (Bussey and Bandura 1999, Campbell 2004)
A
- Other research challenges idea that gender stereotyping only develops at age 6
- Bussey and Bandura (1999) found children young as 4 reported
- “Feel good” playing gender appropriate toys, “bad” when doing opposite
- Contradicts Kohlberg, suggests Kohlberg was wrong
- Campbell (2004), longitudinal study (same ppts) 56 children ages 2 and 3
- Sat with parent, shown pictures, asked to point to “girls” toy, “boys” toy
- 53% point to correct photo age 2, 94% point to correct photo age 3
- Suggests Kohlberg’s theory is weak, out of date (lacks temporal validity)
- Environmental factors same (Nurture), Same children (Good reliability)
43
Q
Methodological issues (Bem 1989)
A
- Limitation, supporting research poor methodology to assess gender constancy
- Bem (1989) criticised methodology used in studies linking gender and cog development
- Key test in such studies, child understands gender stays same despite changes to appearance and context
- Bem argued best way to identify males’ females through physical differences (Genitalia)
- In her study, demonstrated 40% children (age 3-5) demonstrated constancy if shown naked photos
- Child therefore based judgment on more than clothing
- Suggests typical way of testing may misrepresent what younger children actually know
- Younger children may also lack the vocabulary to express their understanding
