Gender

Question 1

Explain how males and females are different

Answer 1

Obvious physical differences, but other differences include extraversion, agreeableness, narcissism, psychopathy, social dominance, enjoying casual sex, self esteem and overall wellbeing (Scmitt, 2014)

Question 2

Define sex

Answer 2

Biological/physical aspects of being male or female

Question 3

Define gender

Answer 3

Behavioural, experimental and social dimensions of being male or female

Question 4

Define gender roles

Answer 4

Societal expectations for normal and appropriate male and female behaviour and occupations

Question 5

Define gender stereotypes

Answer 5

Fixed ideas about men’s and women’s traits, capabilities, occupations and behaviours

Question 6

Define gender identity

Answer 6

Personal view of oneself as male or female

Question 7

Define gender differences

Answer 7

Any cognitive, behavioural or physical features that differ statistically between genders (National Institute of Health, 2011)

Question 8

Define intersex

Answer 8

Person born with ambiguous genitalia or genitalia that does not match their chromosomal sex

Question 9

Define biological differences

Answer 9

Any gender differences attributable to genetics and hormones

Question 10

Define environmental differences

Answer 10

Gender differences attributable to environmental factors

Question 11

Define interactions

Answer 11

Interplay between biological and environmental factors in the construction of gender

Question 12

Define masculinity/femininity

Answer 12

A measure of culturally appropriate/expected (constructed) attributes of men and women

Question 13

How do psychologists commonly measure masculinity and femininity?

Answer 13

The 1974 Bem Sex Role Inventory or the 1975 Person Attributes Questionnaire (Helmreich and Stapp)

Question 14

What is androgyny?

Answer 14

Having a significant number of both masculine and feminine traits (no obvious gender)

Question 15

What is the basis of the biological argument and what are it’s strengths and weaknesses?

Answer 15

Genes and hormones, as well as the structure and function of the brain are the causes of observable gender differences (Halgeson, 2012 - pg 135)
Strengths: Makes logical sense, and has some grounding in various conditions i.e. 5ARD, etc.
Weaknesses: Lack of empirical evidence, no definitive part of biology can be attributed to gender, they contradict, some say chromosomes, some say hormones, and brain differences means whole theory cannot entirely explain differences)

Question 16

What is the natural human form?

Answer 16

Female, as females do not require female hormones to form, only the absence of male ones. Therefore, nature will “produce a female unless androgens (male sex hormones) intervene” (Atkinson and Hilgard, 2009)

Question 17

How many chromosome pairs are there?

Answer 17

23 pairs (all match in females, and one odd pair - XY in males)

Question 18

Outline the case of 5 Alpha Reductase (Batista boys)

Answer 18

Imperato and McGinlet et al (1974) claimed that gender roles were flexible until at least puberty, citing the Batista boys, who were born female, but once puberty arrived, their female genitals became male

Question 19

Does the case of the Batista boys support the nature or nurture argument?

Answer 19

It seems to support the nature argument, as genetics changed the children’s sex during puberty, and despite being raised until puberty as female, their genders also changed to male, suggesting that gender is influenced primarily by biological factors

Question 20

Outline Klinefelter syndrome

Answer 20

When a boy is born with an extra X chromosome, most don’t realise they have it until they try to have children, and general traits include low testosterone, feminine body features and minor cognitive impairments

Question 21

Does Klinefelter syndrome support nature, nurture or the interactionist argument?

Answer 21

nature/interactionist argument, as chromosomes and genes play a role, but chromosomes cannot be the only factor, as if that was the case, the gender of the individuals would likely be more ambiguous, as they ought to showcase both masculine and feminine traits as a result of having both types of chromosome

Question 22

What are sex hormones?

Answer 22

Produced by the endocrine system, two kinds: estrogens and androgens and both men and women have them, just in differing amounts

Question 23

What was Aleman’s 2004 experiment, and does it support nature or nurture?

Answer 23

Testosterone was administered to healthy women, and it was found that they performed better on mental rotation tasks, seeming to support nature, as it seems that hormones are responsible for gender differences

Question 24

What is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH) and does it support nature or nurture?

Answer 24

It is a genetic disorder that causes prenatal exposure to high levels of androgens. Females with this condition are more likely to be gay or bisexual and tend to prefer male toys, and have spatial abilities on par with males, seeming to support nature, as hormones seem to be responsible for the exhibition of ‘male’ traits

Question 25

What are the two 'best' ways to showcase cognitive and behavioural differences between the sexes?

Answer 25

Toy preferences and spatial abilities

Question 26

What did Money and Ehrhardt (1972) believe?

Answer 26

Examined how hormones shape gender, and believed that humans are not born with a gender, so it is possible to reassign gender within the first two years of life.

Question 27

Support for Money and Ehrhardt's theory

Answer 27

Their beliefs are evidenced in studies of intersex individuals who were born female, but given hormone treatment, raised as boys, and felt themselves to be boys. Furthermore, female rat fetuses injected with testosterone were more likely to behave like male rats in adulthood

Question 28

What is the case of David Reimer and does it support the nature or nurture debate and does it prove Money's ideas?

Answer 28

Bruce and Brian were identical twins, and Bruce's penis was destroyed during a botched circumcision, and at Money's recommendation, his genitalia was altered to a girl's and he had ongoing estrogen injections and was renamed Brenda. However, he never felt like a girl and eventually transitioned back into a man, before committing suicide. This seems to imply that the role of hormones and socialisation cannot sway the influences of chromosomal sex, and seems to support neither the nature nor nurture debate, though Money believed it was clear evidence for the biological argument for gender differences.

Question 29

What is Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?

Answer 29

AIS occurs when an individual is born with XY chromosomes and testes instead of a uterus, but they also have a vagina. In people with AIS, the androgens from the testes do not produce the full change into a male, and their testes are generally removed, and they are raised as girls.

Question 30

Who experimented on individuals with AIS, and do their findings support the nature or nurture debate?

Answer 30

Hires, Ahmed and Huges (2003) compared 22 typical girls to 22 girls with AIS and found no differences in gender related behaviour or personality, suggesting that hormones could override genetics, supporting the thinking of Money and Ehrhardt, in that chromosomal sex can be overridden via hormones

Question 31

What did Harasty (1999) and Kimura (1987) find in regards to brain differences in males and females?

Answer 31

Harasty found that the Wernicke's area (the area for comprehending sounds and word meanings) is 30% larger in women and the Broca area (important for the ability to produce fluent speech) is 20% larger in women. Kimura found differences in the sexes such as spatial ability and verbal ability are likely due to brain organisation

Question 32

What is the evolutionary/ sociobiological theory of gender differences?

Answer 32

Attempts to explain differences in behaviour by reference to survival advantages over time (first proposed by Darwin, written by Gross, 1996), for example, males are more competitive and aggressive as this helps to attract a mate, and females are nurturing for the same reasons. This should be argued as a nurture theory, because it argues that social pressures are what forced differences in genders

Question 33

What are the strengths of the evolutionary argument?

Answer 33

This theory has considerable explanatory power, and makes logical sense and explains why women have higher social intelligence.

Question 34

What are the criticisms of the evolutionary theory?

Answer 34

Not accounting for things such as cross-cultural differences, and for denying individual agency (free will)

Question 35

What is social learning theory and does it support nature or nurture?

Answer 35

Bandura (1977) argued that gender roles develop as children observe same-sex models and direct tuition. This supports the nurture debate, as it suggested that gendered differences arise because of mimicry of same-sex gender modelling

Question 36

Strengths of social learning theory

Answer 36

People watch, observe and mimic the behaviours. Evidenced in the Bobo doll experiment Bandura conducted, where children observed an adult abusing an inflatable doll, both physically and emotionally and found that children not only modelled the behaviour shown, but also were more likely to model the behaviour if it was exhibited by a same-sex model

Question 37

Weakness of social learning theory

Answer 37

It limits the free will of individuals, and suggests learning only occurs through mimicry

Question 38

What is social role theory and does it support nature or nurture?

Answer 38

Eagly, 1987 argues that gender is a socio-cultural construct. Explanations about males and females are reflected in the way society is organised. The division of labour creates and perpetuates gender differences in behaviour. It supports nurture, as it states that if an occupation demands masculine or feminine traits those traits predict the extent to which the job will be male or female dominated.

Question 39

What support is there for social role theory?

Answer 39

Cejeka and Eagly (1999) found that an occupation demanding masculine or feminine roles can predict the role being male or female dominated

Question 39

What was Kohlberg's 3 stages of gender development?

Answer 39

Gender identity (2yrs): identifies own gender Gender stability (3 or 4 yrs): understands that their gender remains constant over time Gender constancy (5-7 yrs): understands gender cannot be altered

Question 39

What is cognitive development theory and does it support nature or nurture?

Answer 39

Cognitive development theory (Kohlberg, 1966 and 1969) states that once children become aware of aware of their gender, they go looking for role models of the same gender. It supports the nurture debate, as children are not 'born' with a gender, but once they become aware of a gender via social conditioning, they seek out gender appropriate role models.

Question 40

What is Gender Schema Theory and does it support the nature or nurture debate?

Answer 40

Bem (1981) argues that people are either male or female with specific gender attributes. These gender schemas organise our information processing. Bem states that the most important factor in developing gender identity is children's ability to label themselves as boys or girls. Children are motivated to conform and tend to observe same sex gender models more clearly/carefully. It supports nurture, as, like the Bobo doll experiment, children model the behaviour showcased by same sex models.

Question 41

Strengths and weaknesses of cognitive development theory

Answer 41

Strengths: Show child development over time Weaknesses: Overestimates the cognitive ability of a 2 year old child

Question 42

What experiment did Serbin and colleagues discover in 2002?

Answer 42

Toddlers looked longer at images showing gender inappropriate behaviour (a man putting on lipstick) indicating they were puzzled

Question 43

Strengths and weaknesses of Gender Schema Theory

Answer 43

Strengths: Does showcase how people categorise masculine and feminine characteristics accurately Weaknesses: Does not explain the universality of some traits such as aggression in men

Question 44

What are socio-cultural influences?

Answer 44

Whatever the culture defines as gender appropriate is what is imbibed through social learning

Question 45

What is the psychoanalytical theory and does it support the nature or nurture debate?

Answer 45

Freud holds that gender results from biological drives hidden in the unconscious and interacting with the developmental process and environmental factors. Freud thought that young children identified with the gender attributes of their same sex parent. Symbolic interactionist, as he states a little of both nature (biological factors) and nurture (observing same sex parents)