Gender

Question 1

What’s the difference between sex and gender?

Answer 1

SEX- the biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy. Chromosomes influence hormonal and anatomical differences.

GENDER- the psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviors and social roles. This is more fluid and an individual could be more masculine or feminine.

Question 2

What is Gender Identity Disorder?

Answer 2

Gender Identity Disorder: For the most people, biological sex and gender identity correspond, however, for some people, their biological sex doesnt reflect the way they felt inside.

Question 3

What are sex- role stereotypes?

Answer 3

These are shared by a culture or group consisting of expectations regarding how males and females should behave. These expectations are transmitted via society and reinforces by members of it.

Question 4

Talk about the study on TV adverts as evidence for sex role stereotypes

Answer 4

TV adverts, found men more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts whereas women more likely to be in domestic settings, this demonstrates the existance of sex- role stereotypes.

Question 5

Talk about Smith and Lloyds experiment as evidence for sex- role stereotypes

Answer 5

Smith and Lloyd- 4-6 month old babies dressed half in boy clothes the rest in girl, the boys given active encouraging toys where girls told ‘pretty’. This shows differential treatment and could possibly be a cause of reinforcing stereotypes

Question 6

What is Androgyny?

Answer 6

This is a type of gender which mixes masculine and femenine characteristics.

Question 7

Talk about the context of the Bem Sex Role Inventory

Answer 7

The idea of Androgyny was bought about by Sandra Bem who challenged the concept of two gender types.
She devised an inventory for measuring gender called the Bem Sex Role Inventory- BSRI. It is the first systematic attempt to measure androgyny scored accross 2 dimensions:
Male - Female
Androgynous - Undifferentiated

Question 8

How did bem devise and carry out the BSRI and what did she find?

Answer 8

Bem asked 50 male and 50 female students to rate 200 traits for how desireable they were for males or females. From this, she chose 20 male terms, 20 female and 20 gender neutral terms and asked 600 participants to rate each term on a likert scale.

She found that most clustered around the male or female but many were androgynous and a few undifferentiated.

Question 9

Talk about Test- Retest Reliability in the BSRI

Answer 9

The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) shows good test-retest reliability. Bem re-administered the test to participants four weeks after they first completed it and found consistent results. This suggests the BSRI produces stable and reliable measurements over time, meaning it is a dependable tool for assessing androgyny.

Question 10

Talk about the Temporal Validity of the BSRI

Answer 10

The BSRI may lack temporal validity as it was developed in the 1970s using traits considered masculine or feminine by American students at the time. Gender roles have evolved since then, so the inventory may no longer accurately reflect modern understandings of gender identity. This reduces its validity as a current measure of androgyny.

Question 11

Talk about the Ethnocentrism of the BSRI

Answer 11

The BSRI is ethnocentric because it was based on Western views of gender roles, specifically from American culture. These ideas may not apply to all societies, as concepts of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny vary across cultures. As a result, the test may not be universally valid, limiting its generalisability.

Question 12

Talk about the validity of self- report measures of the BSRI

Answer 12

The BSRI relies on self-report, which can undermine its validity. Participants may lack insight into their own personality traits or alter responses due to social desirability bias, affecting accuracy. However, the test provides quantitative data, making it easier to analyse, compare, and interpret, adding a degree of objectivity.

Question 13

Talk about Chromosomes and their function

Answer 13

Chromosomes are found in the nucleus of living cells and carry genetic information in the form of genes. Genes control inherited characteristics by coding for proteins that determine an organism’s traits. Humans have 23 pairs (46 total) chromosomes, including the sex chromosomes, which determine biological sex.

Question 14

What is the 23rd chromosomes importance?

Answer 14

The 23rd pair of chromosomes are called sex chromosomes. They determine an individual’s biological sex:
Males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY)
Females have two X chromosomes (XX)
Sex is determined at fertilization by the type of sperm cell that fertilizes the egg.

Question 15

What is the importance of the Y chromosome?

Answer 15

The Y chromosome carries an important gene called SRY (Sex-Determining Region Y). This gene:

Triggers the development of testes in an XY embryo.

The testes produce androgens (male sex hormones), such as testosterone.

Androgens stimulate the development of male characteristics (e.g., male reproductive organs and secondary sexual traits).

Question 16

What are hormones and what do they influence?

Answer 16

Hormones are chemical substances circulated in the blood that control and regulate the activity of certain cells or organs.

They are produced both prenatally and during adolescence They influenced the development of genitalia and or affect the brain which affects gender behaviour

Question 17

Talk about testosterone

Answer 17

A sex hormone which is more present in males than females and affects the development and behaviour both before and afterbath when it’s released in the womb. It causes the development of male sex organs and acts upon the hypothalamus, resulting in masculation of the brain. It is also linked with aggression and competitiveness.

Question 18

Talk about Oestrogen

Answer 18

One of the main female sex hormones, even though males also produce it, it just affects females more. It governs the development of secondary sexual characteristics and menstruation from adolescence onwards

Question 19

Talk about Oxytocin

Answer 19

Promotes feelings of bonding contentness and calming. It is particularly important in breastfeeding to promote lactation and is released at times of stress. For example, in fight or flight, it has earned the nickname the love hormone, as it is released when people bond socially and snuggle and have sex

Question 20

Talk about the supporting evidence for the role of hormones- animal studies

Answer 20

Research on rats supports the role of hormones in gender development. Female rats injected with testosterone before birth developed male-like brains, ambiguous genitals, and displayed masculinised behaviour, such as attempting to mate with other females. This suggests that hormones influence gender-related behaviour. However, findings from animal studies may not be directly applicable to humans due to differences in biological structures. There are also ethical concerns regarding the psychological harm caused to the animals.

Question 21

Talk about the supporting evidence for the fact that gendered behaviour is biologically determined

Answer 21

A study found that when male and female monkeys were given stereotypically male and female toys, the males preferred trucks, while the females preferred dolls. This suggests that gendered behaviour is biologically determined, as the monkeys were not influenced by socialisation or media. However, while this supports the role of innate biological factors, caution is needed when generalising to humans, as environmental and cognitive factors also play a role in human gender development.

Question 22

talk about supporting evidence for the role of hormones- human studies, batista family

Answer 22

The Batista family case study provides strong support for the role of hormones in gender development. Four children were born with female external genitalia and raised as girls, but during puberty, an increase in testosterone led to the development of male genitalia. The children were subsequently reclassified as boys and adapted well to the change. This suggests that biological factors, particularly hormones, play a crucial role in gender identity. However, as a case study, the findings may not be generalisable to all individuals.

Question 23

Talk about the supporting evidence for the role of biological factors in gender development- Bruce and Brian Reimer

Answer 23

The case of Bruce and Brian Reimer challenges the idea that gender identity is purely social. After Bruce’s penis was accidentally destroyed during circumcision, he was raised as a girl (Brenda). Despite being socialised as female, Brenda struggled with gender identity and later transitioned back to living as male (David). This supports the role of biological factors in gender development, as socialisation alone could not override biological influences. However, ethical concerns exist, as Bruce’s case involved significant psychological distress.

Question 24

What are atypical sex chromosomes?

Answer 24

Atypical sex chromosomes are when a person has a 23rd chromosome that isn’t the usual X, Y or X X

Question 25

What is turners syndrome?

Answer 25

Turner's syndrome affects 1 in 2000 females and affects the development. In only females who have 1X chromosome.

Question 26

What are the physical characteristics of turners syndrome?

Answer 26

Characteristics include shorter than average, about 4 foot 7 a lack of menstrual cycle. They don't develop breasts associated with low set ears and a webbed neck, high hip to waist ratio and physically immature.

Question 27

Talk about the psychological characteristics of turners syndrome

Answer 27

Psychological differences include higher than average verbal ability, but lower spatial ability, hard to adjust to social situations and generally generate poorer relationships.

Question 28

Talk about treatments of turners syndrome

Answer 28

Treatments include growth hormone injections, which aim to increase height, oestrogen replacement therapy, which helps to start the secondary sexual development and oestrogen and progesterone tablets to maintain menstration

Question 29

What is Klinefelter's Syndrome?

Answer 29

This affects one in every 750 males. In addition to having XY chromosome, these men's also have an additional X chromosome

Question 30

What are the physical characteristics of Klinefelter's syndrome?

Answer 30

Physical characteristics include less body hair and underdeveloped genitals, being weaker in learning to sit up and cross slower at young, growing abnormally tall and being infertile

Question 31

What are the Psychological Characteristics of Klinefelter's Syndrome?

Answer 31

Psychological characteristics include poorly developed language and reading skills, passive, shy and lack confidence. Bad responses to stressful situations

Question 32

Treatments for Klinefelter's Syndrome

Answer 32

Testosterone therapy- help stimulate changes which typically occur at puberty Breast Tissue Removal Therapy- educational support Fertility Treatment

Question 33

Talk about Atypical Sex Chromosomes contribution to the nature nurture debate

Answer 33

Research into chromosomal abnormalities, such as Turner’s and Klinefelter’s syndromes, provides evidence for the role of biology in cognitive and social development. The fact that intelligence and language abilities are affected suggests a genetic influence. However, establishing cause and effect is difficult, as these conditions also impact physical and physiological traits. For example, individuals with Turner’s syndrome may be socially immature due to their childlike appearance, which could lead others to treat them differently, affecting their social development.

Question 34

Talk about the issues with generalisability in Klinefelter's Syndrome

Answer 34

Only about one-third of individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome are aware of their condition and receive a diagnosis. This suggests that research may be biased towards those with more severe symptoms, as those with milder symptoms may never seek medical attention. As a result, the studies may not accurately represent all individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome, reducing the generalisability of findings to the wider population.

Question 35

Talk about the Practical Applications of investigating atypical sex chromosomes

Answer 35

Increased awareness of chromosomal disorders has led to earlier diagnosis, improving long-term outcomes for individuals with conditions such as Klinefelter’s syndrome. An Australian study of 87 patients found that early intervention had significant benefits, such as improved cognitive and social functioning. This highlights the real-world value of research into atypical chromosomal patterns, as it can lead to better support and treatment for affected individuals.

Question 36

What does the psychodynamic explanation of gender development say?

Answer 36

suggests that gender identity and role we acquired during the third stage of psychosexual development.

Question 37

Talk about the pre-phallic children and gender development

Answer 37

Freud's gender developmental theory sees children pass five psychosexual stages around the time of puberty. The third of these stages is the Phallic stage- when gender development occurs. As a child enters the phallic stage, they focus their libido to the genitals. Here, children become increasingly aware of their bodies exhibiting a heightened interest in their own genitals and others. Their understanding of anatomical sex differences begins to form, sparking a complex mixture of emotions known as the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls. Before the phallic stage, the child doesn't have a gender identity

Question 38

Talk about the Oedipus Complex and Gender development

Answer 38

This arises during the phallic stage where the boy develops sexual desires for his mother and a jealous hatred towards their father as he's seen as standing in the way of the boy possessing the mother. However, the boy sees the father as more powerful than him and if he finds out than he would take away what he loves the most (penis), hence developing castration anxiety. This is solved through identification where the child starts adopting characteristics of their father and represses the incestual desires. this leads to internalization.

Question 39

Talk about the Electra Complex

Answer 39

At the same age, girls develop penis envy, seeing themselves and their mother in competition for their fathers love and blame their mothers for their lack of penis. This is resolved when they accept they’ll never have a penis and replace this with the desire to have children.

Question 40

Talk about little Hans as evaluation of the psychodynamic explanation of gender development

Answer 40

little hans was a 5 year old boy with a phobia of horses and linked this to the oedipus complex saying he unconsciously represented his fear of his father onto the horses (big penis). Freud said that the fear of horses biting him seen as castration anxiety. Freud said that hans can resolve this conflict by fantasising himself as having a bug penis and marrying his mother to identify with his father. However, this is just an interpretation as the complex is impossible to falsify. This makes it unscientific and not necessarily be truthful.

Question 41

Talk about Nuclear Family as evaluation for Gender development

Answer 41

The theory relies on children growing up with two parents of differing genders. However, many children grow up in single- parent families and still go onto develop normal gender identities. This challenges Freud’s explanation. Green- Studied 37 children growing up in non-traditional nuclear families. in all cases but one children developed typical gender identities and behaviours.

Question 42

Talk about the psychodynamic explanation's temporal validity

Answer 42

Lacks Temporal Validity Freud was writing in the 1800’s and reflects the prevailling views of the time they were developed. For example, the notion of penis envy implies women are inferior to men which people wouldnt agree with. This shows that the views were outdated.

Question 43

Talk about the unscientific nature of the psychodynamic explanation

Answer 43

The whole theory relies heavily on constructs whose existance is hard or impossible to directly test. Many would argue that this makes the theory unscientific and hard to test.

Question 44

Talk about social learning theory as an explanation for gender development

Answer 44

Social learning theory is a way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors. Social learning theory acknowledges the role social context plays in developing gender. This is learned by observing others drawing attention to the influence of environment.

Question 45

What is a schema, and what does the gender schema theory suggest?

Answer 45

A schema is a cognitive framework that helps individuals organize and interpret information. In gender development, schemas change as children grow older and help them understand gender roles and behaviors in society.

Question 46

What is Gender Schema Theory?

Answer 46

GST outlines childrens enhanced interest in their gender as ‘in group schemas’ and those that thwy have less interest in as ‘out of group schemas’. Once a child has identified with a group, they positivley evaluate it leading them to be like the in group and avoid behaviours of the outgroup.t.

Question 47

What is Kholbergs Theory?

Answer 47

Kholbergs theory states that a child must reach gender constancy before they imitate same- sex role models whereas GST suggests that children aged 2-3 begin searching for rules or ‘schemas’ with regards to the world around them.

Question 48

Talk about direct reinforcement of gender identity

Answer 48

Direct Reinforcement- Children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour which is ‘gender appropriate’. for example, boys may be encouraged to be active and assertive and are more likely to be punished for being passive and gentle. Through the differential reinforcement, children learn their gender identity.

Question 49

Talk about indirect (vicarious) reinforcement of gender Identity

Answer 49

If the consequences of another persons behaviour are favorable, behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child. For example, if a little girl sees her mother receive a compliment when she wears a pretty dress, the girl may try to replicate this. This can happen the other way round, for example, if a boy displays feminine behaviour, they are less likely to replicate.

Question 50

Talk about identification and modeling related to gender identity

Answer 50

Identification- This is the process whereby a child attaches himself or herself to a person who is seen to be like them or wants to be. These people are known as role models, they tend to be attractive, high status and the same sex as the child. The child then models the role model, this is the precise replication of a behaviour. A child may witness their mother making dinner and laying the table, the child may model this behaviour with their dolls which reinforces gender roles.

Question 51

Talk about mediational processes and gender norms

Answer 51

Attention- A little boy may want to emulate his favorite premier league footballer, playing close attention to what he does. Retention- Remembering the skills he showed and tried to reproduce this in the playground Motivation- This comes from wanting to be like his hero

Question 52

Talk about Martin and Halverson as evidence for Kholbergs theory

Answer 52

Martin and Halverson- They asked 5 and 6 year old’s to look at pictures of children playing, some were schema consistent and some inconsistent. After a week, it was found that children switched the schema inconsistent images around and remembered, for example, a boy playing with a gun when it was a girl. This supports the idea that children build gender schemas as that’s what their memories were based on.

Question 53

Talk about Bradbard et al as research to support Gender schema theory

Answer 53

Bradbard et al- Told 4-9 year old’s that certain gender neutral items were boy/ girl items. Participants took greater interest in the items that were labelled as their ingroup. A week later, they were able to remember more details about ingroup objects.

Question 54

Talk about Hoffmans research opposing gender schema theory

Answer 54

Hoffman- Found that children whose mothers work have less stereotyped views of what men do. This suggests that children are not entirely fixed on gender schemas and can take on some gender inconsistent ideas. Furthermore, other studies also found that 3-4 year old’s justified their gender specific choice of toys without reference to gender stereotypes.

Question 55

Talk about individual differences as opposing evidence for gender schema theory

Answer 55

Individual Differences- Gender schema theory cant explain why different children with much of the same environmental influences respond differently to gender appropriate behaviour. For example, this theory cannot explain why some girls prefer action figures and some boys prefer barbies. This could be due to biological differences such as genes and hormones, which the gender schema theory ignores.

Question 56

What is gender dysphoria?

Answer 56

Gender Dysphoria is the distress a person experiences due to a mismatch between gender identity and their sex assigned at birth.

Question 57

What is Gender Identity Disorder?

Answer 57

People with GID identify much more with the opposite sex that their one identified at birth. This is a source of stress and discomfort and recognised by the DSM-5 as a psychological disorder. Many people with this disorder identify as Transgender and opt for reassignment surgery.

Question 58

Talk about the neurological explanation of Gender Identity Disorder (brain sex theory)

Answer 58

This suggests that dysphoria is cause by specific brain structures that are incompatible with biological sex. Particular attention has been paid to the parts of the brain that are dimorphic- different in males and females. A location called the BSTc shows that it’s 2x larger in males with twice the amount of neurones. Studies show that the same number of neurones is found in male to female transgenders than normal females and vice versa. This shows some sort of structural correlation.

Question 59

Talk about the supporting evidence of the neurological explanation of gender dysphoria

Answer 59

Zou et al: id an empiricist study of brain structures of 6 MtF transitioners and found their brains followed female patterns. This shows support to the theory’s assumption that structure plays a role in gender dysphoria which increases the validity of the study - scientific- high internal validity - small sample size

Question 60

Talk about opposing research of the neurological explanation of GID

Answer 60

some research says the BSTc is fully formed at 5 so treatment shouldn’t effect the size. However, alternative research found that trans hormone therapy does actually affect the size. This may suggest that observed differences in the BSTc is due to hormone therapy- not causing gender dysphoria.

Question 61

Talk about the genetic basis of gender identity disorder (a study)

Answer 61

TWIN STUDIES: Heylens et al compared 23 MZ turns to 21 DZ twins either one of each being diagnosed with gender disphoria. They found that 39% of MZ twins were concordant for GD compared to no DZ indicating a role of genetics.

Question 62

Evaluate the genetic basis of GID

Answer 62

- concordance rates aren’t 100% and so it’s hard to separate the nature from nurture and results are largely inconclusive. - Small sample sizes- hard to obtain- and so hard to generalise - twins (especially MZ) influence each other and are more likely to be treated the same.

Question 63

Give two general evaluation points for the biological explanations of atypical gender development

Answer 63

REDUCTIONIST- reduces complex disphoria to simple genetic and neuroanatomical explanations which ignore other factors like social levels INTERACTIONIST- combination of several levels so may be relevant as a complex condition it’s unlikely to be explained as a single influence.

Question 64

Talk about the psychoanalytical theory of atypical gender development

Answer 64

psychologists think thst GD in males is caused by extreme separation anxiety before a gender identity is established. The child fantasises about symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety and danger of separation. The child then adopts a female gender identity.

Question 65

Evaluate the psychoanalytical theory of atypical gender development

Answer 65

can’t be scientifically observed or tested so no way to demonstrate if the unconscious mind actually exists therefore it’s untestable STOLLER- interviews with GD males found to have an overly close mother son relationship ship so may mean they lead to greater female identification and long- term confusion.

Question 66

Talk about the Dual Pathway theory of atypical gender development

Answer 66

This is an extension from the gender schema theory. It explains gender dysphoria by two pathways: 1. acknowledges the development of gender schema which directs gender appropriate attitudes and behaviour 2. describes how the development of gender schemas are affected personally by the activities children engage in. This could lead to androgynous behaviour and more flexible attitudes to gender.

Question 67

Evaluate Social psychological theories of atypical gender development

Answer 67

Cognitive theories are descriptive rather than explanatory, for example, there is very little explanation of why a child may become interested in activities not consistent with its own see. REDUCTIONIST- ignores biological factors NTERACTIONIST- combination of several levels so may be relevant as a complex condition it’s unlikely to be explained as a single influence.

Question 68

What is culture and why is cross cultural research good?

Answer 68

Culture is the ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society. Cross- cultural research is noted for its contribution to the nature- nurture debate. For instance, if a particular gender- role, behaviour appears to be consistant accross cultures, we may conclude its innate.

Question 69

Talk about Margret Meads New Guinean tribal research findings

Answer 69

Arapesh- observed as being peace- lovers with no warfare awareness. They enjoy recreational activities and see raising a child as a privilage. Both sexes are seen as feminine and take on maternal roles with their children growing up to be passive with high emotional security. Mundugumor- Aggresseive and hostile where men have rightful ownerships over the women and can trade them between other men creating a huge sense of competition and divide in the family Tchambuli- This tribe exhibits a role reversal where the women are seen as bread winners and performed acts like trading and fishing to support their family. They also provided emotional security to children and huspands while men look to more recreational activities like adorning themselves and dressing up.

Question 70

What did Margret Mead conclude?

Answer 70

This suggests that there may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender and that gender roles may be culturally determined.

Question 71

Talk about David Buss' study on cultural similarities

Answer 71

Carried out a survey in 37 countries where participants had to rate the importance of certain characteristics of a potential mate. Males rated good looks and youth as important as its a good indicator over health and ability to be a mother. Chasisity was also important due to wanting faithfulness. Women rated financial prospects and dependability. This shows that there are cross- cultural similarities.

Question 72

Talk about the study of Munroe and Munroe

Answer 72

Also a study by Munroe and Munroe rebealed that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines with males being the breadwinners and females being the nurtures.

Question 73

Talk about observer bias in cross- cultural research

Answer 73

Observer Bias- Mead has been criticised for not seperating her own opinions from her descriptions of tribal life and making sweeping generalisability based on short periods of study

Question 74

Talk about imposed etic in cross- cultural research

Answer 74

Imposed Etic- Cross- cultural research is taken by western researchers who take indigonous populations to be their object of study. Theres a danger researrchers impose their own culture and understanding upon the people they are studying.

Question 75

Talk about exaggeration of cross cultural research.

Answer 75

Exaggeration- There is suggestions she exaggerated the differences and characteristics of each male and female groups. She did find the males were more aggressive in the tribes although this wasnt reported.

Question 76

Talk about the nature nurture debate in relation to cross- cultural research

Answer 76

Nature vs Nurture- it doesnt solve the debate as its impossible to seperate the two influences on gender roles. As soon as children are born, they are identified as male or female so immediately socialisation treats them differently.

Question 77

Talk about Media in relation to gender

Answer 77

Media involves communication channels, such as TV, film and books, through which news, entertainment, education and data are easily available. The media provides role models with whom children may identify and want to immitate. Children select role models who are the same sex and engage in gender appropriate behaviour making it more likely to be reinforced.

Question 78

Talk about rigid stereotypes

Answer 78

The media may play a role in reinforcing stereotypes concerning male and female behavior. There is evidence that the media provides clear and rigid stereotypes. Men are depicted as independent, ambitious, advice-givers Women are depicted as dependent, unambitious and advice seeking. Seeing other people perform gender appropriate behaviors increases the child's belief they are capable of carrying out behaviour- self efficacy

Question 79

Talk about evidence for the influence of media on gender

Answer 79

Furnham and Farragher- Investigated the use of sex role stereotypes in advertising. Men tended to be used in power positions while woemn in familial toles with domestic settings. This suggests that media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour

Question 80

Talk about correlational research on media influences of gender

Answer 80

Correlation not Causation- Although its generally concluded that media has considerable influcence on the formation and maintainance of childrens gender role steroetypes, its hard to establish cause and effect. It may be media reflects prevailling social norms about males and females. We cant have control groups as the vast majority of children are exposed to media in some way making the direction of medias effects hard to establish.