research methods

Question 1

What is the experimental method?

Answer 1

A research approach involving deliberate manipulation of an independent variable (IV) to observe its effect on a dependent variable (DV), while controlling extraneous influences.

Question 2

Name and define the four types of experiment.

Answer 2

Laboratory: Highly controlled setting; Field: Natural setting; Quasi: IV naturally occurring; Natural: IV not manipulated by researcher.

Question 3

Distinguish naturalistic vs. controlled observation.

Answer 3

Naturalistic: Observing in genuine setting; Controlled: Observing in structured environment.

Question 4

Distinguish overt vs. covert observation.

Answer 4

Overt: Participants know they’re watched; Covert: Participants unaware.

Question 5

Distinguish participant vs. non-participant observation.

Answer 5

Participant: Observer joins group; Non-participant: Observer remains separate.

Question 6

What are the two main self-report methods?

Answer 6

Questionnaires and Interviews (structured and unstructured).

Question 7

Give one strength and one limitation of open vs. closed questions.

Answer 7

Open: Rich qualitative data but hard to analyse; Closed: Easy quantitative analysis but lacks depth.

Question 8

What is a correlation?

Answer 8

Mathematical technique measuring the association between two co-variables without manipulation; does not imply causation.

Question 9

Name and plot the three basic types of correlation.

Answer 9

Positive: r>0; Negative: r<0; Zero: r=0.

Question 10

What are the basic steps in content analysis?

Answer 10

Formulate hypothesis, develop coding scheme, collect material, code and tally, analyse themes/frequencies, report findings.

Question 11

Define a case study and give one strength and one limitation.

Answer 11

In-depth examination of a single individual or small group; Strength: rich data; Limitation: poor generalisability.

Question 12

What is an aim?

Answer 12

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate.

Question 13

Distinguish directional vs. non-directional hypotheses.

Answer 13

Directional predicts direction of effect; Non-directional predicts a difference without direction.

Question 14

What’s the difference between population and sample?

Answer 14

Population is the entire group; Sample is the subset studied.

Question 15

Describe five sampling techniques.

Answer 15

Random, Systematic, Stratified, Opportunity, Volunteer.

Question 16

What is a pilot study?

Answer 16

A small-scale trial run of a study to identify procedural issues before the main investigation.

Question 17

Compare repeated measures, independent groups, and matched pairs designs.

Answer 17

Repeated: same participants; Independent: different participants; Matched: paired on characteristics.

Question 18

In observations, what are behavioural categories, event sampling, and time sampling?

Answer 18

Behavioural categories: non-overlapping behaviours; Event sampling: count occurrences; Time sampling: record at intervals.

Question 19

Define IV, DV, extraneous, and confounding variables.

Answer 19

IV: manipulated cause; DV: measured effect; Extraneous: may influence DV; Confounding: varies with IV, threatens validity.

Question 20

What are randomisation and standardisation?

Answer 20

Randomisation: using chance to reduce bias; Standardisation: keeping procedures identical.

Question 21

What are demand characteristics and investigator effects?

Answer 21

Demand: participants alter behaviour based on perceived aims; Investigator: researcher behaviour influences outcomes.

Question 22

List four key ethical issues and one way to address each.

Answer 22

Informed consent: full information; Deception: thorough debrief; Protection: counselling/support; Confidentiality: anonymisation.

Question 23

What is peer review and name two common criticisms.

Answer 23

Expert scrutiny before publication; Criticisms: anonymity abuse, publication bias.

Question 24

Give two examples of how psychology research benefits the economy.

Answer 24

Mental health treatments reduce absenteeism; Improved interview techniques reduce judicial costs.

Question 25

Define reliability and differentiate test-retest, inter-observer, and split-half methods.

Answer 25

Reliability: consistency; Test-retest: same test different times; Inter-observer: observer agreement; Split-half: compare test halves.

Question 26

Name one way to improve reliability in questionnaires, interviews, and observations.

Answer 26

Questionnaires: clear items; Interviews: structured format; Observations: clear behavioural categories.

Question 27

Define internal and external validity.

Answer 27

Internal: IV alone affects DV; External: generalisability across contexts.

Question 28

What are face, concurrent, and predictive validity?

Answer 28

Face: appears valid; Concurrent: correlates with established measure; Predictive: forecasts future behaviour.

Question 29

How can validity be improved in experiments and questionnaires?

Answer 29

Experiments: control groups/blind procedures; Questionnaires: anonymity, lie-scales.

Question 30

List four features of the scientific method in psychology.

Answer 30

Objectivity, empirical measurement, replicability, falsifiability.

Question 31

What sections comprise a scientific report?

Answer 31

Abstract—a summary of the key details of the research so people can decide whether they want to read it; Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion- talk about psychological theories References

Question 32

What is the order of referencing needed

Answer 32

Books- author, date, title, place of publication, publisher Journal- author, data, title of article, journal name, volume, issue number, page range

Question 33

Describe quantitative vs. qualitative data.

Answer 33

Quantitative: numerical; Qualitative: non-numerical, rich in depth.

Question 34

Define primary, secondary data, and meta-analysis.

Answer 34

Primary: collected firsthand; Secondary: using others’ data; Meta-analysis: statistical synthesis of studies.

Question 35

How do you calculate mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation?

Answer 35

Mean: sum/N; Median: middle; Mode: most frequent; Range: max-min; SD: sqrt(variance).

Question 36

What do positive, negative, and zero correlations look like on scattergrams?

Answer 36

Positive: upward slope; Negative: downward slope; Zero: no trend.

Question 37

When would you use bar chart, histogram, line graph, scattergram, and tables?

Answer 37

Bar: discrete categories; Histogram: continuous intervals; Line: changes over time; Scattergram: associations; Tables: data summaries.

Question 38

Describe normal vs. skewed distributions.

Answer 38

Normal: symmetrical; Positive skew: tail right; Negative skew: tail left.

Question 39

Define nominal, ordinal, and interval levels of measurement.

Answer 39

Nominal: categories; Ordinal: ranked; Interval: equal intervals.

Question 40

When is the sign test used and how is it performed?

Answer 40

Related design with nominal data; Difference between A and B, count + and - signs, compare to critical value.

Question 41

What do p ≤ .05 and p ≤ .01 signify?

Answer 41

≤5% chance results due to chance; ≤1% chance, higher confidence.

Question 42

Define Type I and Type II errors.

Answer 42

Type I: false positive; Type II: false negative.

Question 43

What three factors determine which inferential test to use?

Answer 43

Experimental design, level of measurement, research question (difference vs. association).

Question 44

Fill in the table of test applications for nominal, ordinal, and interval data.

Answer 44

Nominal: χ² (unrelated), Sign test (related), χ² (association); Ordinal: Mann–Whitney, Wilcoxon, Spearman’s ρ; Interval: Unrelated t-test, Related t-test, Pearson’s r.