Gender development Flashcards

Question

Turner's causes

Answer 1

Mosaicism - some cells have 46 chromosomes while some have only 45 chromosomes Impartial x chromosomes

Answer 2

Symptoms vary on age Longer to crawl and sit up as a baby Have problems with coordination muscle strength, worse motor skills development Typically taller than average, have very long limbs even for their height Delayed speech and language and can find reading quite challenging Individuals have lower levels of testosterone, they have smaller testes, decrease facial hair, underdeveloped genitals Gynecomastia - development of breast tissue Described as having rounded body contours irrespective of gym habits. Infertility in 90% Increased risk for type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and osteoporosis, higher risk for breast cancer

Answer 3

Low set ear Wide weblike neck Broad chest with wide set nipples, shield chested Swelling of hands and feet Low hairline Short fingers and toes And short stature Slow growth, shorter than average adult height, failure to have sexual changes associated with puberty Infertility due to premature ovarian Susceptible to other issues like hypothyroidism, renal diseases, G.I. issues, osteoporosis, increased of CVD (narrow coronary arteries) At risk of aortic dissection, tear in wall of aorta

Answer 4

Varies on age of individual Speech therapists, psychologists, fertility specialists, physical therapists, counsellors Testosterone replacement therapy, increased mood, helps in relationships, don’t respond well to stressful situations don’t have great executive functions like problem solving Quite shy and reserved character TRT is a life-long therapy can be given via pill, injection or gel The earlier you start treatment the greater the impact of the treatment

Answer 5

No cure for turners symptoms, can be helped with oestrogen replacement therapy and human growth hormone. ERT can aid in sexual secondary development, give these things around the age of puberty they are more effective then. HGH, is a growth hormone needs to be given in a young age.

Answer 6

Individuals with atypical chromosome patterns support nature, they support that some behaviours are innate, for example girls with turners syndrome tend to have higher verbal ability than normal girls it can be inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of the abnormal chromosome structure. However it is overly reductionist too assume the gender is just a result of nature, because this ignores the influence of the environment and the childhood.

Answer 7

We must be cautious not only because it’s a small sample but also because it’s a sample where most members of the population look different appearance wise and our therefore quite likely to be treated differently to others, therefore its not just the chromosome pattern that is different it is also their environment as a result of what they look like that is also different, therefore we have to be cautious to not standardise cause and effect early on.

Answer 8

The assumption that there are typical male and female behaviours could be stereotypes and therefore comparing these individuals behaviours with this is too simple, because if these behaviours are stereotypes and these behaviour don’t even exist then we can't compare the behaviour of these individuals to behaviour that might not even exist.

Answer 9

Macoby and Jacklin (1974) found significantly greater differences within the sexes than between sexes, means that behaviour within the sexes has a great variation therefore we can’t compare the behaviour of the atypical sex chromosomes to those with typical sex chromosomes because of how different behaviour can be within the sexes.

Answer 10

Kohlberg proposed this theory in 1966 it is based on the idea that child's understanding of gender runs parallel to their biological maturation and becomes more sophisticated with age. Gender development is thought to progress through three stages, the ages suggested by Kohlberg are approximate and reflect that the transition from stage to stage is gradual rather than sudden.

Answer 11

Kohlberg took inspiration from Piaget's finding's, for example Piaget proposed the children are egocentric and as they become older they begin too decentre he also proposed the notion of conservation where the properties of an object remain the same even as the outward appearance of that object changes

Answer 12

gender identity gender stability gender constancy

Answer 13

gender identity happens around 2, children are able to correctly identify themselves ad boy or girl, however they don’t understand that gender is permanent over time or situation for themselves and others.

Answer 14

at age 4 they acquire gender stability; they realise that they will always stay the same gender over time. However, they cant apply this logic to other people e.g. man with long hair is a woman.

Answer 15

at age 6 they reach gender constancy here they recognise that gender remains constant over time and situation not just for themselves but for everyone.

Answer 16

Kohlberg’s work was developed using interviews that were done on very young children like 2 or 3, even though the questions were tailored to a younger age group there are possibilities that Kohlberg didn’t acknowledge the level of vocabulary needed to express understanding, children may have more complex ideas about gender but the inability to express themselves.

Answer 17

In the study done by Slaby and Frey children were presented with split screen images of males and females performing the same task, younger children spent roughly the same amount of time watching both sexes. However, children who had reached the gender constancy stage spent more time watching the model who was the same sex as them. This support Kohlberg’s theory that children who have acquired constancy will actively seek gender

Answer 18

Kohlberg’s theory is undermined by the observation that many children begin to demonstrate gender-appropriate behaviour before gender constancy is achieved. Bussey and Bandura found that children as young as 4 reported feeling good about playing with gender appropriate toys and feeling bad about doing the opposite, this contradicts what Kohlberg said.

Answer 19

Martin and Halverson proposed the gender schema theory a cognitive explanation of gender development which argues that children’s understanding of gender increases with age.

Answer 20

a mental framework of our ideas about gender, male and female including attitudes, behaviours and values, they grow and become more sophisticated over time. Martin and Halverson proposed that when a child identifies with appropriate gender at the age of two they then actively start searching environment for information.

Answer 21

gain their schemas by paying attention, retaining information, this information comes from the environment and helps children process a lot of information at once and not become overwhelmed.

Answer 22

children pay much more attention to those in their ingroup rather than their outgroup, their ingroup is their own gender and the outgroup is everyone else, information from the outgroup they ignore and reject it because its not schema consistent. at around 7-8 they develop an out-group schema as well

Answer 23

Bradbard (1986) - The study showed how gender schemas related to memory, they told 4-9 years old that certain gender-neutral items were boy or girl items, participants took greater interest in the items that were labelled as their own ingroup, also one week later they were able to remember more details about ingroups objects. This is a strength however we don’t know if the children had seen these objects before, pizza slicer, burglar alarm. However, their children did ignore the gender inconsistent items which supports the gender schema theory.

Answer 24

Zosuls et al - Longitudinal study of 82 children looked at the onset of gender identity, data was obtained from twice weekly reports from mothers on their children's language from 9 to 21 months and videotaped analysis of the children at play. They found that at around 19 months the children labelled themselves as a boy or a girl this normally happened as soon as they began to communicate telling us that they children have a gender identity before, but they can’t communicate it. Mothers might not be truthful and because it’s a self-report measure hard to be consistent with other people's views. Martin and Halverson cant explain it before two years old therefore it’s a limitation of the theory.

Answer 25

Study done by Martina and Halverson found that children under the age of six were more likely to remember photographs of gender consistent behaviour that photographs of gender inconsistent behaviour, children tended to change the gender of the person in the gender inconsistent situation when asked to recall them a week later. Despite this we don’t know if children had been exposed to photographs before so could be due to shock. But it does show that memory was better when photographs showed gender consistent behaviours.

Answer 26

The child observes their father who is mowing the lawn, the child identifies with their father because they are both male and he models himself after his father and the actions of his father. Therefore he imitates his father's actions in this scenario mowing the lawn. This process by which the child copies his father's actions is called vicarious reinforcement. The boy pays attention to his father mowing the lawn, he then retains this information this picture that men mow the lawn, he is then motivated to the mow the lawn because his father has received direct reinforcement from mowing the lawn and he copies his father, by motor reproduction and also mows the lawn. This all takes place because he is modelling his father because he is also a man.

Answer 27

Children are more likely to be directly reinforced for displaying behaviour that is deemed gender appropriate - e.g. Boys encouraged to be active, girls encouraged to be gentle. These differences in the styles of reinforcement represents differential reinforcement and this is how children learn their gender identity. Behaviour that is reinforced is more likely to be repeated.

Answer 28

a child will copy another child's behaviour when they wish to model after that child and that child has received positive reinforcement for a certain behaviour if the consequences are unfavourable then the child will pay attention and not copy this behaviour, they will remember that the actions of this behaviour lead top unsavoury consequences.

Answer 29

used 4-6 months old babies and dressed half the time in boys clothes and half the time in girls clothes, the children who were thought to be boys were encouraged to be adventurous and active and given hammers and boy themed toys. Children who were thought to be girls were given a cuddly toy and reinforced for being passive and gentle this shows that gender appropriate behaviours are reinforced and stamped in at an early age. This can't be explained using innate differences between boys and girls for that to happen we would have needed monozygotic twins who were different genders but that isn't possible

Answer 30

SLT doesn’t tell us how the process of gender development changes with age for all we know one day we wake up and know everything there is to know about gender, a cognitive theory would say that that as the ideas of gender development become more advanced biological maturation runs parallel to this advancement.

Answer 31

Buss (1988) showed that the traits men and women desire in a partner are similar. this is a limitation of the SLT explanation, because SLT tells us that children model after people who they identify with normally the same gender as them and imitate and model themselves after these people. However if the traits that men and women desire are similar

Answer 32

doesn't take into account biological differences also methodological issues

Answer 33

Boy in love with mom, boy feared that dad will find out love for mum, jealous of dads strength, internal conflict between love for mother and fear that father will find out Boy fear that if dad finds out he will cut his penis of, castration anxiety Internal conflict, love for mum fights the castration anxiety Key to resolving the conflict, identifying and internalising with the same sex parent Resolves conflict by stopping love for mother and identifying with father, internalises his fathers behaviour

Answer 34

The girl thinks that her penis has been chopped of by her mothers, penis envy, realises that both her and mother don’t have a penis, mum castrate her as she loves the dad Loves dad because he has a penis and this is powerful, penis envy Internal conflict between fear of losing mothers love and love for dad The conflict is resolved instead of desiring a penis, desires a child instead

Answer 35

Many commenters have criticised the use of Freuds concept of the Oedipus complex as well as the use of the Little Hans study Freuds theory implies that sone of very punitive and harsh fathers should go on to develop a more robust sense of gender identity than other boys because of the high levels of anxiety should produce stronger identification with the aggressor However this is not supported by evidence and in fact the reverse would seem to be true - boys with more liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculine identity (Blakemore and Hill 2008)

Answer 36

Much of the research onto girls parallel development was conducted by Carl Jung rather than Freud Freud admitted that women were a mystery to him and his notion of penis envy has been criticised as reflecting the patriarchal Victorian era which he lived in and worked. It has been argued that a more powerful emotion than penis envy is the male experience of womb envy, a reactions to women's ability to sustain and create life. It has been argued that penis envy was a cultural concept, rather than an innate trait and challenged the idea that female gender development was founded on a desire to want to be like men and androcentric assumption.

Answer 37

Freuds theories relies on the child having two parents of different genders so they are able to manage the Oedipus or Electra complex effectively. It is logical to assume from the conclusions that Freud said that being raised in a non-nuclear family would have adverse effects on a child's gender development. Evidence does not support the assumption, though. For example Golombok et al (1983) demonstrated how children from single parent families went on to develop normal gender identities. Similarly Green (1978) studied a sample of 37 children who were raised by gay or transgender parents, and discovered that only one had a gender identity that was described as non-typical.

Answer 38

Based on just Little Hans which was a very unique case study, therefore has poor generalisability lack of rigour in his methods, methods are untestable and unscientific

Answer 39

Mundugamor - Both sexes were aggressive and hostile (similar to the western stereotypes of masculinity), neither liked childcare so the baby was put out of the way in a dark place Arapesh - Both men and women were gentle and responsive (similar to the western stereotype of femininity, both were very expressive caring and cooperative and both took to bed when the females was pregnant Tchambuli - The Tchambuli women were dominant and they organised village life, men were passive and considered to be decorative

Answer 40

Later on Mead said that she had underestimated the universal nature of many gender-typical behaviours. And she argued that the extent to which innate behaviours are expressed is largely the result of cultural norms

Answer 41

Buss, survey in 37 countries, ppts rated the importance of certain characteristics in potential mate, males rated good looks and youth as important because it is a good indicator of health and ability to be a mother, chastity was also important Women rated financial prospects, industriousness and dependability, this supports that that there are cross-cultural similarities in gender role, many women and men instinctively seek similar traits

Answer 42

1929 studied the Trobriand islanders (situated off the coast of new guinea) In documenting their sexual behaviour, Malinowski reported that the Trobriand women were sometimes highly sexually aggressive Gangs of women would capture and rape men from other times, often quite brutally, and they would boast about it and considered that it boosted their reputation

Answer 43

Reactivity - the researchers presence may alter the behaviour of those being studied Communication - the researcher may be misinformed by or may misunderstand their informants Imposed etic - the researcher may impose their own preconceptions on the data

Answer 44

Mead was criticised for becoming too involved with the tribes and therefore her findings were criticised for being subjective There are suggestions that she exaggerated the difference based on her own preconceived ideas Buss got around the above issue by including a member of the local population in his research team Studying different languages in different countries can make communication difficult - interpretation may be inaccurate Meads presence within the tribes may have caused an impact that resulted in demand characteristics These types of studies are time consuming and expensive It would have been good if there were other observers as well, she should have had a non participant observation, should not have been involved directly in the study

Answer 45

Investigated the sex role stereotypes in advertising, men tended to be used in power positions and women in familial roles within domestic settings The voiceovers tended to be males suggesting that males are deemed to speak with more authority This suggests that media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviours

Answer 46

Bussey and Bandura showed that the media do provide very clear stereotypes this suggests that the media do reinforce rigid gender stereotypes which contribute to gender schema The media provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate, especially these models of the same sex and who are reinforced for gender appropriate behaviour this links to the social learning theory

Answer 47

The media does more than confirm gender typical behaviours, it may also give information to males and females on terms of the likely success or otherwise of adopting these behaviours Seeing other people perform gender-appropriate behaviour increases the child's beliefs that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future

Answer 48

Difficult to find cause and effect. Just because the media has considerable influence on the formation and maintenance of children gender stereotypes it doesn’t mean that the media outright creates them Also it is difficult to establish the medias effect without control group, most children are constantly exposed to tv and media therefore its hard to find a group of children that haven't been exposed

Answer 49

Counter stereotypes, these stereotypes challenge traditional notions of masculinity and femininity Pingree (1978) found that gender stereotyping was reduced when children were shown adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles However also found that pre-adolescents boys stereotypes became stronger following exposure to the non-traditional models Such a notion may be explained by boys desire to maintain a view that goes against adults views

Answer 50

McGhee and Frueh in 1980 found that people who view a lot of tv tend to display more gender stereotypical views in their behaviour and attitudes that people who view little

Answer 51

strong persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with ones own assigned sex. People who have gender dysphoria have a desire to live as a member of the opposite sex and often dress and use mannerisms of the opposite sex.

Answer 52

Gender dysphoria is classified as a psychological disorder in the DSM-5 due to the distress it causes, previously called gender identity disorder, was changed due to the connotations surrounding disorder.

Answer 53

Across England and Wales, there were responses from 45.7 million people (94.0% of the population aged 16 years and over). A total of 45.4 million (93.5%) answered “Yes”, indicating that their gender identity was the same as their sex registered at birth. A total of 262,000 people (0.5%) answered “No”, indicating that their gender identity was different from their sex registered at birth

Answer 54

unknown how many people have gender dysphoria, how many people have been referred or diagnosed, hard to assume.

Answer 55

Looks at areas of the brain that are dimorphic (dimorphic says that there is a different form in males and females) Zhou et al (195) - BSTc - brain area, right in the middle of the brain near the thalamus Assumed to be fully developed at 5 (can't change after this) and 40% larger in males than females Post mortem studies of 6 male to female transgender individuals found the BSTc to be a similar size to that of a typical female brain Kruijver et al (2000) - number of neurones in the BSTc rather than volume, the 6 individuals showed a sex reversed identity pattern with an average neurone number in the female range

Answer 56

Claimed BSTc is fully developed at 5 so hormones treatment for transgender individuals may be ineffective - plasticity goes against Hulshoff Pol et al (2006) challenged this, finding hormone therapy did affect the size of the BSTc, differences in size may be due to hormone therapy rather than the cause of the GD (hormones - brain change = GD or brain structure = GD) Chung et al (2002) claimed pre-natal hormonal influences which affect the size of the BSTc are not triggered until adulthood, suggests BSTc is the effect of transgenderism rather than the cause e.g. congenital adrenal hyperplasia The research concluded that the BSTc provides evidence for a neurobiological basis of gender dysphoria and proposed that such a difference was determined before birth, beyond individuals control

Answer 57

Genetics Hare et al (2009) - DNA of male to female transgender individuals Found longer version of the androgen receptor gene than in a 'normal' sample (statistically average male) Results in reduced action of the male sex hormone testosterone, could lead to under masculinisation of the brain

Answer 58

Inconclusive twin studies, if genetic should see high concordance in mz twins - rates only at 39% (Heylens et al 2012) Hard to separate nature and nurture Small sample sizes

Answer 59

gender dysphoria has been proposed to be an innate form of phantom limb syndrome, brain has wired itself in the opposite way to the biological sex the person is. They feel like they have wrong sex organs - 2/3 of the FtM report sensation of phantom penis from childhood

Answer 60

Ramachandran and McGeoch (2007) - support for cross wiring when comparing GD patients and non GD who have had surgery to remove sex organs. Non GD males - 60% amputees experience a phantom penis GD men - 30% experience phantoms so suggests not wired to be there initially.10% FtM experience phantom breast sensation post-surgery, suggests different brain wiring

Answer 61

Pesticides not internal or genetic biological causes, but an environmental element of biology. Pesticide DDT contains oestrogen which exposes pre-nataly to high levels of female hormones. Suggestion the exposure causes mismatch between sex and hormone influences

Answer 62

oversimplified concepts, biological explanations reduce complex behaviour to an anatomical/genetic/hormonal level. Other factors occurring at a higher psychological or social level can be ignored Therefore a more appropriate explanation would be an interactionist explanation

Answer 63

these refer to the perception that GD is a condition learned via socialisation processes Male/female stereotypes are societal inventions and forced people to pick one and conform to it. Would suggest that GD is social and not pathological

Answer 64

Fafafini - samoa mead - 3 tribes, behaviour for male and female were different McClintock (2015) - genetic condition in sambia tribe of new guinea Biological boys categorised as female at birth based on genitals Puberty = testosterone = change in genitals - male Culture accepts males, female kwolu - aatmwol (females than males) Since western contact, kwolu - aatmwol now judged as a pathological form of GD

Answer 65

Mother and son relationship Ovesey and Person (1973) suggest GD in males is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established, the child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with the mother to relieve anxiety and the danger of separation is removed The consequence is the child adopts a female gender identity to be like their mother

Answer 66

Stoller (1973) offers some support for this theory - in interviews with GD males, they were seen to display overly close mother-son relationships, leading to greater female identification/confusion long term Zucker (2004) - FtM transexuals - sever paternal rejection in early childhood leads to identification as male, unconscious drive to gain acceptance from father Ignores females, unfalsifiable and unscientific, how can we assess separation anxiety, absence of after more likely explanation than separation anxiety

Answer 67

social constructionism - study in science that emphasises the role of culture and society and context, generates understanding and meaning. Supports the view that not all cultures have two genders. Increase in those identifying as non-binary suggests cultural understanding is starting to catch up with lived experience. Suggests gender identity/dysphoria are socially constructed rather than biological facts. Knowledge is socially constructed, truth is dependent on consensus, views of community and society. No absolute's and no universals. Different cultures view gender differently historically, history has ignored the feelings of people that don’t fit the mould of male and female. History has ignored the lived experience of many people

Gender development Flashcards

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