GENDER INEQUALITY - PERSPECTIVES

Question 1

What was the first wave of feminism?

Answer 1

Emerged in mid-1800s with main aim at reforming the social and legal inequalities faced by women in particular, to achieve universal female suffrage (right to vote)
Led mainly by middle class women (known as suffragettes)
Campaigned to achieve right to vote, poor education opportunities for girls and wanted to vouch for better secondary education and access to higher education
Wanted to open up entry to professions for women and to change the law that stated once women were married, their wealth and income became the property of their husbands
Women could not divorce their husbands - unless husband agreed and women forced to give up contact with children
Early 1900s was seen as the first wave having achieved a number of their goals - laws passed that gave women access to higher education, education system reformed to give more rights to women, granted access to some professions, recognition of married women’s property rights and some improvements in divorce and child custody rights

Question 2

What was the second wave of feminism?

Answer 2

Grew in the 60s and 70s and was linked to other campaigns for social change e.g. civil rights movement, gay rights and anti-war protests
Focus on ‘the personal is political’ - issues women face is a result of the organisation of society which is patriarchal
Leads to women’s oppression in the private sphere of the home and to inequalities in the public sphere of work, politics etc
Aimed to achieve anti-discrimination policies and equal rights
Went about solving the problems through female-only meetings and groups - sense of support networks and ‘sisterhood’
First National Women’s Liberation Movement (1970) vouched for equal pay and work, equal education and job opportunities, free contraception and abortion on demand and free 24-hour nurseries

Question 3

What was the third wave of feminism?

Answer 3

Developed in mid-1990s onward
Much more diverse and individualistic which came into existence in the context of globalisation and an increasingly digital information society
Less focus on laws and political processes, but more on individual identity
Acknowledged that women come from many ethnicities, nationalities, religions and cultural backgrounds so there can be no single approach to feminism
Criticised second-wave feminism for focusing heavily on white middle class women
Argue that they want to define feminism for themselves, in a way that reflects their own identities and belief systems
Focus on making changes to traditional ideas about sexuality and abolishing gender roles and stereotypes

Question 4

What is the fourth wave of feminism?

Answer 4

Not much distinction from the third wave
Necessary movement in the 21st century to take action against sexism and a range of inequalities facing girls and women globally
Cochrane (2013)
It is defined by technology: tools that are allowing women to build a strong, popular, reactive movement online
Claim that they use the internet to bring about change wherever they see the need by means of online petitions and direct action
New feminist activism - success of the ‘Everyday Sexism Project’, the introduction of the activism badge for ‘Girl Guides’, growing influence of online organisations such as Mumsnet and UK Feminista’s campaign against supermarkets displaying ‘lads’ mugs

Question 5

What is liberal feminism?

Answer 5

Focused on obtaining equal opportunities and rights for males and females in society in areas such as the workplace, education and politics
Believe equality can be achieved by legal and wider cultural reforms
Gender inequalities are mainly a result of gender role socialisation and unfair laws and practices, rather than biological differences
Changes in norms and values that reinforce gender divisions will bring equality - legislation is one way of achieving this (Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act are evidence of successful liberal feminist campaigning)
Somerville, Wilkinson, Oakley, Connell

Question 6

What does Somerville argue?

Answer 6

Women today enjoy more choice than their mothers and grandmothers

Question 7

What does Wilkinson argue?

Answer 7

women today have a radically different attitude towards family responsibilities, and are no longer content to see their lives defined my men, marriage, family and children
There has been a ‘genderquake’
Supported by Sharpe’s study

Question 8

What does Oakley argue?

Answer 8

Gender role socialisation in the family is where gender inequality takes root from a young age
Manipulation - encouragement of behaviour that is seen as gender appropriate
Canalisation - ‘channelling’ of children towards toys and activities seen as appropriate for their gender
Promotes different activities between boys and girls, reinforcing gender
Children learn gender identity through internalising behaviour experienced in the family
Gender role socialisation is then reinforced and developed by other agents of social control such as education and media

Question 9

What does Connell argue?

Answer 9

There is a resistance to gender role socialisation as some children actively go against traditional gender stereotypes

Question 10

What are the criticisms of liberal feminism?

Answer 10

Radical and Marxist feminists suggest that it fails to explain how males and females come to hold different levels of power in family and society (radical feminists would refer to this as patriarchy and marxist feminists as capitalism)
Criticise their focus on reforming existing structures in society and argue that more change is needed to bring about equality
Overly-optimistic and positive about achievements - despite the Equal Pay Act of 1970, there is still a significant gender pay gap (10% in 2014)
White, middle-class movement which represents interests of educated, professional women but fails to address concerns of a wider range of women e.g. ethnic minorities, working-class (Intersectional feminists)

Question 11

What was Sharpe’s study?

Answer 11

1970s
⅔ girls aspired to leave school at 16
Occupational ambitions limited to office or shop work
Most expected to marry in their early 20s and generally looked forward to the prospect of starting a family
1990s
Girls saw school, university and qualifications as more important than than marriage and family life
Aspired to high-flying careers and economic independence from men rather than marriage and children

Question 12

What is marxist feminism?

Answer 12

Social class affects the life chances of women and is a key factor in the relationship between men and women. They combine marxism and feminism in order to highlight the way in which capitalism is an economic system which leads to the oppression of women
Family is patriarchal, and women’s position in the family results in their exploitation
Gender inequalities maintained as women encouraged to accept dominant ideology and that any inequalities are fair and legitimate as capitalism is presented as a meritocratic system
Ways in which women serve the needs of capitalism:
Reproduce and socialise next generation of workers into norms and values of benefit to capitalist system (boys - breadwinners and girls - housewives)
Feeley, Benston, Ansley, Dalla Costa and James

Question 13

What does Feeley argue?

Answer 13

Family teaches children to submit to a form of parental authority which is patriarchal
Emerge from family preconditioned to accept place in capitalist hierarchy of power and control - ‘teach passivity and not rebellion’
Family socialises its members into accepting traditional gender roles and jobs in the home
Women’s unpaid domestic work benefits capitalism as only one wage has to be paid and the wife is dependent on her husband’s wage

Question 14

What does Benston argue?

Answer 14

Wife keeps husband in good running order by feeding and caring for him which is essential for capitalism to run smoothly
Because a man must provide for his wife and children means he is less likely to challenge capitalism
Unpaid domestic labour helps support the capitalist system because is women were paid a wage, there would be a massive redistribution of wealth
Critical of nuclear family and women’s role within in - stabilising force in capitalist society
Women soothe stresses and frustrations of proletariat men after a hard day at work

Question 15

What does Ansley argue?

Answer 15

Women act as a ‘safety valve’ and are ‘takers of shit’ as husbands return home having been exploited at work and take their frustration and anger out on their wives
When women play their ‘traditional role’ it absorbs their husbands anger, making him ready to go to work the next day
Women’s unpaid domestic labour means that they are available to work outside home as a ‘reserve army of labour’ for capitalism

Question 16

What does Dalla Costa and James argue?

Answer 16

Launched ‘domestic labour debate’ - drew attention to how unpaid housework and other caring work women do contributes to the economy
Debate whether caring was a full time job which needed a wage
International Wages for Housework Campaign - demand for money to be paid from state for unwaged work in home and community
Campaign drew attention to capitalist economies and how they rely on exploitation of women
International Women Count Network (1985) - UN said governments should measure and value unwaged work in national statistics

Question 17

What is the evaluation of marxist feminism?

Answer 17

Too much emphasis on social class and ignore other factors e.g. ethnicity or age
Postmodernists also critical of the focus on social class as they argue class is no longer a significant social division
Radical feminists critical of capitalism emphasis - argue patriarchy is more significant form of exploitation that predates capitalism and exists in all societies
Relies on a revelation about change that does not seem to be happening
Does not account choice or how women interpret their social situation - Hakim argues some women voluntarily choose to be mothers and housewives
Fails to consider recent changes - outdated

Question 18

What is radical feminism?

Answer 18

Believe that patriarchy is the main source of oppression for women. Society is run by men and by the interests of men meaning that men are advantaged in every sector of society. Gender inequality is the result of men’s dominance, control and exploitation of women.
Family is central to women’s oppression - gender division of labour
Biological element to women’s oppression - women carry, birth and feed a child (however do not accept that biology means women should be treated unequally)
Milllet, Johnson, Delphy and Leonard

Question 19

What does Millet argue?

Answer 19

Men originally acquired power over women because of biological factors but modern technology, machinery and developments (contraceptive pill) means that men no longer legitimate power
Men prepared to defend dominance and will use violence to do so

Question 20

What does Johnson argue?

Answer 20

“Patriarchal terrorism” - terroristic control of wives by husbands which involves violence, economic subordination, threats, isolation and other control tactics

Question 21

What does Delphy and Leonard argue?

Answer 21

The institution of the family plays a key role in the oppression of women
Family is an economic system which men benefit from and exploit women - women work for the male head of the household and he holds economic power
Key characteristics: family as an economic unit
Family based households have a social structure with two roles: head of the household and their dependants
The male makes decisions about allocation of roles and tasks
Dependants work without pay for the head of the household and wives carry out sexual and reproductive work
Economic relationships in family do not usually involve formal contracts or bargaining but mainly informal methods of negotiation
Dependants often receive payments from head of the household in form of clothing etc rather than money
When dependants have paid employment outside home, they are still expected to do domestic work

Question 22

What is the evaluation of radical feminism?

Answer 22

Fail to acknowledge variations in family life between social classes and different ethnic groups
See women as sharing common interests but it has been argued that social class and ethnicity are important sources of inequality and are different for all women
Liberal feminists argue that women’s position in society has changed
Over-emphasis factors that separate women from men - men and women work cooperatively in a number of ways
Overemphasis nuclear family and ignore diversity in family types
Hakim
Full-time mothers voluntarily choose to commit themselves to this role
Somerville
Women still value relationships with men and the bulk of them are based on mutual love and respect

Question 23

What did Walby argue (intersectionality)?

Answer 23

Patriarchy has evolved from “private patriarchy” where women were limited to the domestic sphere of the home and family to “public patriarchy” in which women have entered the public sphere of employment, politics etc but are still disadvantaged
Six patriarchal structures which cause disadvantage:
Paid employment - horizontal and vertical segregation with low pay and status
The household - women exploited in family and take primary responsibility for housework and childcare even if they have a full time job
The state - acts in interests of men through taxation, welfare rules, the weakness of laws protecting women etc
Cultural institutions such as the media - represent women in a narrow set of social rules, such as sex objects, mothers and housewives
Sexuality - double standard applied for men and women (men applauded for having many sexual partners whereas women are condemned)
Violence against women - violence, the threat of violence and sexual assault used by men to control women

Question 24

What are the criticisms of Walby?

Answer 24

Stacey has criticised Walby for over-emphasising the influence of social structure on behaviour. She instead argues that women negotiate such systems

Question 25

What is Hakim’s preference theory?

Answer 25

Critical of most feminist theories - women are not the victims of unfair employment practices
Women have preferences and make rational choices in terms of the type of work they do (e.g. they may put childcare first as a conscious decision)
Lack of affordable and available childcare is not a major barrier for women getting jobs - may prioritise childcare
Women not as committed to careers which is the reason for inequality
Majority of men are work centred, hence why they have dominant positions in labour market
Work-lifestyle preferences:
Home-centred - family life and children main priority throughout life and prefer not to work - 20% of women in Britain
Adaptive - most diverse and includes women who want to combine work and family, plus drifters and those with unplanned careers, who want to work, but are not totally committed to careers - 60% of women in Britain
Work-centred - childless women, whose main priority is employment or equivalent activities in the public arena - 20% of women in Britain

Question 26

What is evaluation of Hakim?

Answer 26

Ginn et al. (1996) points out that it is often employers’ attitudes that confine women to the secondary labour market of low-paid, part-time and insecure work
Feminists argue that Hakim ignores the power of patriarchy to subordinate and oppress women - patriarchal ideology has a powerful effect on shaping women’s preferences

Question 27

What did Bell Hooks argue?

Answer 27

Focus on intersectionality of race, capitalism and gender
Intersectionality - seeks to identify a system of oppression that moves beyond our traditional understanding of oppression
Focuses on various biological, social, religious and cultural factors and how they interact on multiple levels - recognise multidimensional basis of injustice
Systems of oppression have the ability to perpetuate themselves over time

Question 28

What is the functionalist view of gender inequality?

Answer 28

Men and women have separate social roles based on biological differences, which contribute to the smooth running on society
Women give birth and nurse children - natural that they will care for it
Division of labour between men and women - women involved in domestic activities and men act as breadwinners and economically dominant role
Murdock, Parsons and Bales, Human capital theory

Question 29

What did Murdock argue about gender inequality?

Answer 29

Women located in the home because of their biological function of bearing children and their physique meant they were less able than men to perform strenuous tasks
Gender division of labour is universal because they were functional

Question 30

What did Parsons and Bales argue about gender inequality?

Answer 30

Men have the “instrumental”, practical role
Women have the “expressive” caring role
These roles are contributing to the smoothing running of society but also explains why men and women have different experiences in the labour market

Question 31

What is human capital theory?

Answer 31

The wage gap and other employment related differences can be explained by the among if human capital an individual or group of workers develop through knowledge and skills they have obtained (through education and training)
Personal incomes vary according to amount of investment that is made in developing human capitals
Supports functionalist views of meritocracy and the idea that men and women perform different roles and are therefore rewarded differently
Rastogi (2002) - sees human capital as “knowledge, competency, attitude and behaviour embedded in an individual”

Question 32

What is the evaluation of functionalist views on gender inequality?

Answer 32

Feminists such as Oakley have shown that gender roles are socially constructed and are not biological
Human capital theory ignores the structural constraints in society that may disadvantage women
Has not kept pace with social changes in gender roles (outdated)
Tends to refer to the experience of white middle-class people and neglects other social groups

Question 33

What is the new right on gender inequality?

Answer 33

Developed from the 1970s as a political and social movement that sought to influence government policies and public attitudes. They are often regarded as “neo-functionalists” as they hold similar views to functionalists
Gender roles are biologically determined and that men and women should play different roles in society
Men should take roles in the public sphere of work and women should be located within the private domestic sphere
The conventional nuclear family is desirable and based on human nature - essential to a stable society
Traditional gender roles are important for well-being of individuals and society
Male breadwinner provides for economic needs of family
Female housewife means that the male breadwinner is supported, and children will not suffer from maternal deprivation
Schlafly

Answer 34

Acknowledges that marriage can be difficult but sees it as the most fulfilling role for women
Men are superior, and women are there to support them which in itself is a form of power men don’t have
Women tend to the emotional and sexual needs of men - Warm Bath Theory
Women can only be fulfilled in life once they marry and have children
Motherhood is defined as the “peak of happiness” whereby no career can match up to the thrill of having children
Women want to carry our traditional gender roles, and society is structured to create a “healthy” environment
Employment - women reproduce and raise the next generation of workers, which fulfils a mother as she can see her hard work pay off
Women serving in the military is “unnatural” and women have much more important things to do e.g. taking care of children and keeping families together
Gender neutrality confused children and frustrates adults, and perverts the way society normally works

Question 35

What is evaluation of Schlafly?

Answer 35

The biological argument for gender-segregated roles has not been proven
New Right thinkers tend to ignore the negative effects of gender roles that they propose, such as the dark side of the family
Outdated as it ignores the increasing numbers of people who choose to adopt non-traditional gender roles and report these as positive experiences
Accused of looking to the past for a “golden age” that never existed as lone parenting, cohabitation and extra-marital affairs existed then too

Question 36

What did Engels argue about gender inequality?

Answer 36

Suggested that women’s subordinate position is a result of the ownership of private property and the development of the nuclear family
Rise of class-based society though capitalism brought rising inequality
Under capitalism, men gained control over women as they wanted to pass on private property in the form of inheritance from one generation to the other and wanted to ensure heirs were legitimate offspring
Gave rise to the nuclear family ideology - restricts women’s sexuality and enforces monogamy to protect male property rights

Question 37

What do Neo-marxists argue about gender inequality?

Answer 37

Social structure is based on the dominance of some groups over others and that groups in society share common interests
Conflict is not based simply on class struggle and tension between owner and worker; occurs on much wider level amongst all other groups
Includes parents and children, husbands and wives, young and old etc (any groups that can be differentiated as a minority and a majority)
Sought to support all oppressed groups - particular focus on gender inequalities

Question 38

What is the evaluation of the marxist view on gender inequality?

Answer 38

Over-emphasise the impact of class and economic factors on gender
Radical feminists argue that oppression of women by men was the first form of oppression
Focus on macro, structural issues and neglect small scale interactions which provide more valid understanding of relationships between men and women
Created a “conspiracy theory” to suggest that the bourgeoisie work together to create and enforce dominant ideas - little evidence to support this
Postmodernists argue that Marxist views are outdated and fail to recognise changes in gender roles

Question 39

What is the Weberian view on gender inequality?

Answer 39

there are two main types of occupational segregation:
Horizontal segregation - differences in the number of males and females across occupations
Vertical segregation - men’s dominance in the highest ranking jobs in both traditionally male and female occupations
Barron and Norris, Weber

Question 40

What do Barron and Norris argue about gender inequality?

Answer 40

Dual labour market
Primary labour market - secure, well-paid jobs with good promotion aspects
Secondary labour market - jobs with low pay, poor security and promotion aspects
Women concentrated in secondary labour market and men dominate primary labour market
Women’s domestic role as housewives and mothers is not held in high esteem in society and carried little status and power

Question 41

What does Weber argue about gender inequality?

Answer 41

social closure describes the exclusion of some people from membership of certain status groups
Feminists would be keen to point this out that in contemporary society this is what happens in relation to gender as men reserve and protect top positions in society and exclude women

Question 42

What did the Electoral Commission find about the political activism gap?

Answer 42

Women are significantly less likely than men to participate in campaign-oriented actives, such as contacting a politician and donating money to, working for, or being a member of, a political party
Women less likely than men to join voluntary organisations
links to Weber’s social party

Question 43

What is the evaluation of Weberian views on gender inequalities?

Answer 43

Does not actually explain why some social groups, such as men and women, end up in different sectors of the labour market and why some groups have more status than others
The three dimensions that they examine are inter-related - those who have economic power tend to have a high standing in the community (status) and are able to use these two forms of power to influence the political process
Postmodernists argue that there is no longer a consensus about what constitutes high and low status as norms and values are no longer fixed