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Genetic Modification Flashcards

1
Q

What does genetic modification involve?

A

Genetic modification involves the transfer of a gene or section of DNA from one organism into the DNA of another organism

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2
Q

To begin the process of genetic modification, what must be done first?

A

The gene that needs to be inserted is located in the original organism

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3
Q

What are restriction enzymes used for?

A

Restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA in different locations (they target different sequences of DNA)

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4
Q

What do restriction enzymes ensure?

A

Restriction enzymes ensure that specific enzymes can be selected that will cut out the required piece of DNA

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5
Q

What is the term used to describe what cutting DNA with restriction enzymes resulting in pieces of DNA that have?

A

Sticky ends

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6
Q

What are sticky ends?

A

Sticky ends are short sections of single-stranded DNA, they are ‘sticky’ because they will pair together with another sticky end that contains complementary bases

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7
Q

What is a bacterial plasmid cut by?

A

The same restriction enzyme that is used to cut the required gene out of the DNA

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8
Q

What does the bacterial plasmid that was cut by the same restriction enzyme ensure?

A

This ensures that the base pairs of the two sticky ends are complementary to each other, meaning that they will ‘stick’ together

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9
Q

What is the plasmid and the isolated gene that was cut out joined by?

A

DNA ligase enzyme

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10
Q

What does the DNA ligase do if two pieces of DNA have complementary sticky ends?

A

DNA ligase will link them to form a single, unbroken molecule of DNA

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11
Q

What should you think of restriction enzymes as?

A

DNA scissors

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12
Q

What should you think of ligase enzyme as?

A

DNA glue

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13
Q

What should you think of genetic modification as?

A

Cutting and sticking the DNA fragments

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14
Q

What can plasmids and viruses act as for genetic engineering?

A

Vectors

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15
Q

What does a vector do in genetic engineering?

A

They take up pieces of DNA and then insert this recombinant DNA into other cells

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16
Q

What do viruses transfer DNA into?

A

Viruses transfer DNA into human cells or bacteria

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17
Q

What do plasmids transfer DNA into?

A

Plasmids transfer DNA into bacteria or yeast

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18
Q

What is DNA ligase used to do?

A

DNA ligase is used to join two separate pieces of DNA together

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19
Q

What is the genetically engineered plasmid inserted into?

A

The genetically engineered plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell

20
Q

What happens when the bacterial cell that has the genetically engineered plasmid inserted into it begins to reproduce?

A

When the bacteria reproduce the plasmids are copied as well and so a recombinant plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply and they will then all express the gene and make the human protein

21
Q

How can the genetically engineered bacteria be reproduced quickly?

A

The genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce quickly in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the human protein

22
Q

How is a virus genetically modified?

A

The same restriction enzyme is used to cut out gene of interest from DNA, and to cut open plasmid of virus to leave sticky ends on both

As a result, these sticky ends of the gene and plasmid overlap via complementary base pairing to be joined together by ligase enzyme, ensuring gene is inserted in the correct orientation

Recombinant DNA is formed and inserted into Virus

Consequently, virus will carry recombinant DNA to infect other organisms that it comes into contact with, inserting recombinant DNA into cell

23
Q

How is a bacterial cell genetically modified?

A

The same restriction enzyme is used to cut out gene of interest from DNA, and to cut open plasmid vector to leave sticky ends on both

As a result, these sticky ends of the gene and plasmid overlap via complementary base pairing to be joined together by ligase enzyme, ensuring gene is inserted in the correct orientation

Recombinant DNA is formed and inserted into bacterial cell

Consequently, bacteria will pass on recombinant DNA to other bacteria when it reproduces via binary fission

24
Q

What can a vector be defined as?

A

A vector can be defined as a vehicle that is used to deliver recombinant DNA into a target cell

25
How can bacteria be genetically modified to produce human insulin?
The gene for human insulin can be inserted into bacteria which then produce human insulin
26
What can human insulin be used for?
The insulin can be collected and purified for medical use to treat people with diabetes
27
Where is the gene for insulin production located within on a human?
The gene for insulin production is located within a human chromosome
28
What is restriction enzymes used for?
Restriction enzymes are used to isolate or ‘cut out’ the human insulin gene, leaving it with ‘sticky ends’ (a short section of unpaired bases)
29
What is bacterial plasmid cut by and what does it leave it with?
A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it with corresponding sticky ends (plasmids are circles of DNA found inside bacterial cells)
30
What is the plasmid and the isolated human insulin gene cut by the same restriction enzyme joined together by?
The plasmid and the isolated human insulin gene are joined together by DNA ligase enzyme If two pieces of DNA have matching sticky ends (because they have been cut by the same restriction enzyme), DNA ligase will link them to form a single, unbroken molecule of DNA
31
How can genetically engineered bacteria be reproduced quickly?
The genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce quickly in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the human protein
32
What happens when the genetically modified bacteria that have had the plasmid inserted to produce human insulin begin to reproduce?
When the bacteria reproduce, the plasmids are copied as well and so a recombinant plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply All the new bacteria will express the human insulin gene and make the human insulin protein
33
Why are bacteria extremely useful for genetic engineering purposes?
They contain the same genetic code as the organisms we are taking the genes from, meaning they can easily ‘read’ it and produce the same proteins There are no ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth (unlike if animals were used, as they can feel pain and distress) The presence of plasmids in bacteria, separate from the main bacterial chromosome, makes them easy to remove and manipulate to insert genes into them and then place back inside the bacterial cells
34
What are uses of manufactured insulin?
Produce large quantities of insulin helps diabetic individuals who do not produce enough insulin lower their blood glucose levels Insulin can be introduced into system via intravenous drip, stimulating the conversion of glucose into glycogen (insoluble) to be stored in muscle and liver cells
35
What are genetically modified plants?
Genetically modified plants are plants that have had foreign DNA inserted into their genome
36
Why are plants genetically modified?
Plants are genetically modified to usually improve food production in some way
37
What are genetically modified crops known as?
GM crops
38
What are crop plants usually genetically modified for?
-to contain a gene from bacterium that produces a poison that kills insects, making them resistant to insect pests such as caterpillars (this can improve crop yields) -to make them resistant to certain herbicides meaning that when the herbicides is sprayed on the crop it only kills weeds and does not affect the crop plant -to produce additional vitamins and improves nutritional value e.g. ‘golden rice’ contains genes from another plants and a bacterium which make the rice grains produce a chemical that is turned into vitamin A in the human body, which could help prevent deficiency diseases in certain areas of the world -to be drought-resistant (this would improve crop yields)
39
Why are some people against genetically modified crops?
The effect on populations of wildflowers and insects Some people feel the effects of eating GM crop on human health have not been fully explored
40
What are the advantages of genetically modified crops?
-reduced use of chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides (better for the environment) -cheaper / less time consuming for farmers -increased yields from the crops as they are not competing with weeds for resources or suffering from pest damage
41
What are the disadvantages of genetically modified crops?
-increased cost of seeds as companies that make GM seeds charge more for them to cover the cost of developing them (this can mean smaller, poorer farmers cannot compete with larger farms -increased dependency on certain chemicals, such as herbicides that crops are resistant to often made by the same companies that produce the seed and more expensive to buy -risk of inserted genes being transferred to wild plants by pollination, which could reduce the usefulness of the GM crop (e.g. if weeds also gain the gene that makes them resistant to herbicide) -reduced biodiversity as there are fewer plant species when herbicides have been used (this can impact insects and insect-eating birds) -some research has shown that plants that have had genes inserted into them do not grow well as non-GM plants -may cause unexpected side effects such as allergies -disrupts natural food chain
42
What is the term genetic engineering usually used to refer to?
The term genetic engineering is usually a term used to refer to the manipulation of the DNA sequences of an organism
43
What is the altered DNA called?
The altered DNA is called recombinant DNA (rDNA)
44
What is the meaning of transgenic?
Transgenic means the transfer of genetic material from one species to a different species If an organism contains DNA from a different species it is called a transgenic organism
45
What is any organism that has introduced genetic material known as?
Any organism that has introduced genetic material is a genetically modified organism (GMO)

Biology (7 decks)

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