Genetics Flashcards
To not fail (88 cards)
1
Q
What is MRNA
A
Messenger RNA carries instructions from the DNA in the cell’s nucleus to the rest of the cell. These instructions tell the cell how to make proteins. MRNA brings it out of the nucleus to the ribosome
2
Q
What is TRNA
A
Transfer RNA carries specific amino acids (monomer) to the ribosome, which is the cell’s protein-making machine. The tRNA reads the instructions from mRNA (messenger RNA) and delivers the right amino acids in the correct order to form proteins. Tertiary structure
3
Q
What is RRNA
A
ribosomal RNA is a type of RNA that forms part of the ribosome, the cell’s protein-making machine.
4
Q
What is Sn RNA
A
small nuclear RNA helps process RNA by removing non-coding regions (introns) from pre-mRNA in a process called splicing
5
Q
What is transcription
A
Transcription is the process by which the information in a cell’s DNA is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. This is the first step in making proteins.
6
Q
What is RNA polymerase
A
RNA polymerase is an enzyme that helps produce RNA by reading a DNA template during transcription. It binds to the DNA, builds an RNA strand, and releases the mRNA once the process is complete.
7
Q
Where does transcription occur?
A
In the nucleus
8
Q
What comes first, transcription or Translation
A
Transcription
9
Q
What is involved in Transcription
A
RNA polymerase, mRNA and creating a DNA
10
Q
What are non-coding regions
A
Non-coding regions are parts of DNA or RNA that don’t code for proteins but serve important functions.
11
Q
What are coding regions
A
coding regions are the parts of DNA and RNA that directly encode the information necessary to produce proteins.
12
Q
What are promoter regions
A
Promoter regions are DNA sequences near the start of a gene that help control gene expression. They guide RNA polymerase and other proteins to begin transcription (located on DNA)
13
Q
what is the result of the translation
A
A polypeptide is formed
14
Q
What is a mutation?
A
A change within an amino acid
15
Q
What is a substitution mutation
A
The wrong bases have matched
16
Q
What is an insertion mutation
A
An extra base(s)
17
Q
What is a deletion mutation
A
A base has been removed
18
Q
What is a frameshift mutation (single cell mutation)
A
An amino acid has been removed or added, causing the strand to read incorrectly. This can be dangerous because the STOP codon can be added somewhere, causing a lack of amino acids.
19
Q
Silent mutation
A
Does not change the sequence
20
Q
Missense mutation
A
Does change the sequence by frameshift
21
Q
Nonsense mutation
A
A point mutation that introduces a stop codon
22
Q
Chromosome mutation
A
Results in a change in chromosome structure. This could happen during DNA replication or meiosis.
23
Q
Duplication
A
This is when genes are duplicated through generations to build immunity
24
Q
What are introns
A
Introns are non-coding regions within a gene that are transcribed into RNA but are removed during RNA processing.
25
What are exons
exons are the coding sections of DNA and RNA that provide the necessary information for protein production.
26
What are Snrps
snRNPs are essential for the RNA splicing process, ensuring that only the coding regions (exons) are included in the final mRNA.
27
What is PCR
Polymerase chain reaction
28
What is involved in PCR
DNA portion we want to copy, buffer, primer, TAQ polymerase, nucleotides,
29
What is the first step of PCR
Denaturation: Use heat to break apart the DNA double helix/ molecule
30
What is the second of PCR
Annealing: The two denatured DNA strands will be cooled and be joined by the primers the temp is ideal for the copying that will take place
31
What is the third step of PCR
DNA synthesis: DNA polymerase will work on the nucleotides to amplify the DNA
32
What is the result of PCR
Two double-stranded DNA molecules that were initially one
33
What is the purpose of PCR
To analyze in gel electorphoresis
34
What are the basic components of single nucleotides of RNA?
A phosphate group, a nitrogenous group, A ribose sugar.
35
snRNA is a component of what?
Splicomes that remove introns from eukaryotic
36
The P-site of the ribosome:
Holds the growing peptide chain
37
A silent mutation in a somatic cell has the following effect:
A codon is altered but the resulting amino acid remains the same
38
During transcription, the RNA polymerase needs to bind to What?
Promoter regions
39
A gene coded by 1200 base pairs, not counting the START and STOP signals, would produce a polypeptide product of what amino acid?
400 amino acids
40
The enzyme responsible for replicating the strand of DNA in PCR is what?
Taq polymerase
41
What tRNA anticodon triplet will bind to the mRNA codon GUC?
CAG
42
Sickle cell anemia is the result of a what?
A missense mutation
43
Mature mRNA that has left the nucleus must have the following:
Exons, 3' poly A tail, 5' methyl cap
44
how is transcription initiated (prokaryotes only)?
Transcription is the first process in protein synthesis. RNA polymerase is an enzyme that enters the DNA. It will go to the promoter region and indicate where to begin reading the codon to the messenger RNA. This all happens in the nucleotide. Once mRNA has the RNA transcript it will carry it to the ribosome where the translation process may begin.
45
What is the A-site? What does it do?
Aminocile site. The amino acids that are a part of the polypeptide chain will be brought to this site.
46
What is the P-site? What does it do?
Pepticile site. The polypeptide chain will form and be held here.
47
What is the E-site? What does it do?
The Exit site. The polypeptide chain will be released from here.
48
Explain how translation is terminated.
Translation is terminated when a stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) is reached on the mRNA. Release factors bind to the stop codon in the ribosome, causing the ribosome to release the polypeptide chain and disassemble.
49
What does PCR stand for?
Polymerase chain reaction
50
PCR protocol at 95 degrees
Denaturing-> In this step (The first step) We will use heat to denature the hydrogen bonds that will maintain the shape of DNA
51
PCR protocol at 55 degrees
Annealing -> in this step (second step) the primers bind to the DNA strands. Then, the DNA polymerase starts making new DNA.
52
PCR protocol at 72 degrees
the DNA polymerase works optimally to extend the primers and build the new DNA strands. This is the elongation step where the DNA is synthesized. Good for gel electrophoresis
53
what is a promoter region
A promoter region is a DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to start making RNA. It controls when and where a gene is turned on.
54
What is a start codon
A start codon is the first codon of an mRNA sequence that signals the beginning of translation. It is typically AUG, which codes for the amino acid methionine.
55
what is Taq polymerease
Taq polymerase is a heat-stable enzyme used in PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) to synthesize new DNA strands.
56
What is a chemical mutagen
A chemical mutagen is a substance that can cause changes (mutations) in the DNA sequence by altering its structure or pairing properties.
57
What compound binds to CO2 during the Calvin cycle
Ribulose biphosphate
58
During cellular respiration which of the following is necessary to begin the process
Glucose
59
How does pigment molecule in the chloroplast actually absorb solar light energy?
By elevating one of its electrons into the excited state
60
What situation that occurs during cell respiration in the mitochondria has a parallel event taking place on the thylakoid membrane during photosynthesis?
The active transport of protons into a proton pool by membrane-bound protiens
61
In photo system one where does the excited electron from p700 eventually end up
It is passed to NADP+ to make NADPH
62
What is the ultimate source of all replacement electrons needed to replenish the chlorophyll pigments that become oxidized during light reactions
From water
63
How many molecules of G3P are necessary to regenerate 3RuBP molecules in the Calvin cycle?
5
64
Primary electron carriers that bring electrons to the calvin cycle for oxidization are?
NADP+ and NADPH
65
The ETC complexe that oxidizes FADH2 is what?
Complex II
66
The first molecule to bond to oxaloacetate is
Acetyl CoA
67
What is the thylakoid lumen
The thylakoid lumen is the space enclosed by the thylakoid membrane within chloroplasts. it helps in photosynthesis, as it is where protons accumulate during the light-dependent reactions, creating a proton gradient used by ATP synthase to produce ATP.
68
What is the intermembrane space
The intermembrane space is the region between the inner and outer membranes of a mitochondrion. It plays a key role in cellular respiration, as protons are pumped into this space during the electron transport chain, creating an electrochemical gradient used to produce ATP.
69
What is the stroma
The stroma is the fluid-filled space surrounding the thylakoid membranes inside chloroplasts. It contains enzymes, DNA, and ribosomes necessary for the light-independent reactions
70
What is the Matrix
The matrix is the innermost compartment of the mitochondrion, enclosed by the inner membrane. It contains enzymes, mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes, and is the site of key metabolic processes like the citric acid cycle (
71
explain how the elctrons gain energy they need to be boosted and captured by proteins and electron carriers
light energy excites chlorophyll molecules (in photosynthesis) or high-energy molecules like NADH or FADH₂ donate electrons (in respiration). This energy allows the electrons to move to higher energy states, enabling them to be transferred through proteins and electron carriers in the electron transport chain.
72
State the source of replacement electrons in the photosystems.
In Photosystem II, replacement electrons come from the splitting of water molecules, a process called photolysis, which produces oxygen, protons, and electrons. These electrons replenish the ones excited and lost by chlorophyll to the electron transport chain
73
NADP+ is reduced to form NADPH, state the destination of NADPH
NADPH is used in the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions) of photosynthesis. It donates the high-energy electrons needed to reduce carbon dioxide into glucose and other carbohydrates.
74
Outline the purpose of NADPH
The purpose of NADPH is to act as an electron carrier, providing high-energy electrons and reducing power for biochemical reactions. It is primarily used in the Calvin cycle of photosynthesis to reduce carbon dioxide into glucose
75
How is ATP produced in the Thylakoid membrane
Light energy drives the flow of electrons through the electron transport chain, creating a proton gradient as protons are pumped from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen. This proton gradient drives protons back into the stroma through ATP synthase, an enzyme that synthesizes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate
76
What does rubisco do in the Calvin cycle
is the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle. It fixes carbon dioxide by attaching it to ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), forming two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate
77
What does CO2 do in the photosynthesis
It will bind to the ribisco to form componds such as glucose and other carbohydrates that are used as energy
78
What is the origin of NADPH and ATP in the Calvin cycle?
During these reactions, light energy is captured by chlorophyll in the thylakoid membranes, exciting electrons that are passed through the electron transport chain. This generates a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase, and NADP+ is reduced to NADPH by electrons that are passed to it, both of which are then used in the Calvin cycle to reduce carbon dioxide and form carbohydrates.
79
Where does G3P get its extra chemical energy? What products can be formed from G3P
It gets it's chemical energy from ATP and NADPH. It can form compounds like amino acids and Sucrose
80
Explain Oxygen production in photosynthesis
When light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll in Photosystem II, it excites electrons, which are passed through the electron transport chain. To replace the electrons lost by chlorophyll, water molecules are split in a process called photolysis, releasing oxygen (O₂),
81
Explain water production in respiration
Water production in cellular respiration occurs during the electron transport chain (ETC), which is the final stage of aerobic respiration. As electrons pass through protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane, they combine with protons (hydrogen ions) and oxygen molecules to form water (H₂O).
82
Outline the destination/ role of pryuvate once it's oxidized
After pyruvate is oxidized, it is converted into acetyl-CoA by decarboxylation, losing one carbon as carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, where it is further oxidized to produce ATP, NADH, and FADH₂, which are used in the electron transport chain to generate additional ATP.
83
What is NADH role during the Krbs cycle
During the Krebs cycle, NADH plays a crucial role as an electron carrier. It is produced when NAD⁺ accepts electrons and hydrogen ions during the oxidation of metabolites, such as isocitrate and α-ketoglutarate. NADH then carries these high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain in the mitochondria, where it helps generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
84
do you want to die?
Yes
85
What are nephrons
Nephrons filter blood to remove waste and excess substances, forming urine
86
What are neurons
Neurons transmit electrical signals by generating an action potential when stimulated, which travels down the axon. The action potential triggers the release of neurotransmitters that transmit the signal to the next neuron. Afterward, the neuron repolarizes to return to its resting state, ready for the next signal.
87
How does recombinant DNA work?
Recombinant DNA technology involves isolating a gene of interest, cutting it and a plasmid with restriction enzymes, and then joining them to create recombinant DNA. This DNA is introduced into a host organism, which can replicate the DNA and express the gene, producing proteins or other products for various applications.
88
How do hormones work
Hormones are chemical messengers produced by glands, released into the bloodstream, and transported to target cells. They bind to receptors to trigger specific actions, and their release is often regulated by feedback loops to maintain balance in the body.
