Genetics Flashcards

Question

Aneuploidy – Abnormal numbers of Chms

Answer 1

Although extra numbers of any chm can occur, only extra copies of: -X and Y chms (Klinefelter’s, Triple X and XYY syndromes) -21st (Down’s syndrome) -18th and 13th chms have any compatibility with life. A foetus lacking any chm of a pair, apart from the X chm (Turner’s syndrome), is unable to survive.

Answer 2

Inheriting an extra chm 21 (i.e. three copies). The extra set of chm 21 genes produce higher levels of certain proteins. Facial features, increased risks of hearing/vision defects, heart abnormalities, range of developmental difficulties involving delayed coordination skills and mental abilities such as speech and memory.

Answer 3

- About 40 000 people suffer from downs syndrome - between 700 - 1000 ppl 1 down syndrome born

Answer 4

Trisomy 13 - Patau syndrome: serious eye, brain, circulatory defects. Children rarely live more than a few months. Trisomy 18 - Edward's Syndrome: almost every organ system affected. Children generally do not live more than a few months

Answer 5

first observed - Thomas Bartholin in 1657. Genetically/chromosomal-mechanisms - Dr. Klaus Patau in 1960 1 in 12,000 live births. >80% of infants die within their first year of life. Mosaic Patau - small number of cases occur when only some of the body’s cells have an extra copy of chromosome 13. Nervous system problems: Mental and motor disabilities Microcephaly, or a less rounded brain resulting in more of an egg-shaped skull Eye structure defects: Microphthalmia, Cataracts, Sensory Nystagmus, Optic nerve hypoplasia. Muscular and skin problems: Polydactyly, Low-down ears, Prominent heels, Palm patterns, overlapping of the fingers over thumb, Cleft palate Vascular Problems: Kidney problems Heart defects such as ventricular septal defect

Answer 6

First described by John Hilton Edwards in 1960. 2nd most common trisomy after Down's syndrome. >90% die within 1st yr. Many rarely live past 5-6 days; often miscarried or aborted Most appear weak and fragile, and they are often underweight. head is unusually small and the back of the head is prominent. ears are malformed and low-set, and the mouth and jaw are small (also known as micrognathia). Cleft lip, hands malformed, clenched into fists with the index finger overlapping the other fingers. Club feet toe deformities. Abnormalities often occur in the lungs and diaphragm, and blood vessel malformations are common. Various types of congenital heart disease may be present. The child may have an a hernia, malformed kidneys, and abnormalities of the urogenital system, such as undescended testicles in a male child (cryptochordism).

Answer 7

Edmund Wilson & Nettie Stevens, 1905 - males have XY sex chms and females have XX.

Answer 8

Alfred Jost 1940s - castrated foetal rabbits develop as female.

Answer 9

C. E. Ford 1959 - the Y gene is needed for a fetus to develop as male. Turner's syndrome patients containing a single Xchm and no Ychm grow up as phenotypic females. i.e. there must be a dominant gene which determines testis development on the Y chm.

Answer 10

1990 - discover a region of the Y chm necessary for the male sex determination: SRY (Sex-determining Region of the Y chromosome).

Answer 11

Female abnormalities are due to variations in the number of X chms. Male abnormalities variations in numbers of either the X or the Y chm or both.

Answer 12

Frequencies -1 in 2,000/5,000 females. Only one X chm - genotype is X0 (i.e., monosomy X). Abnormal growth patterns, generally short in stature, may have a distinctive webbed neck. Generally lack prominent female secondary sexual characteristics. Ovaries do not develop normally and they do not ovulate - the few oöcytes that they produce are destroyed by the time they are two. Increase in thyroid disease, vision and hearing problems, heart defects, diabetes, and other autoimmune disorders. Early, injections of human growth hormones and estrogen can allow TS women to appear relatively normal. Individuals can give birth if fertilized eggs from a donor are implanted.

Answer 13

Frequency - 1 in 1,000 females Multiple X chromosomes - genotype is XXX or more rarely XXXX. More gene copies, especially those coding for bone growth, leads to tallness, long legs, slender torsos, but otherwise appear normal and are fertile. May have slight learning difficulties.

Answer 14

Mosaicism is when a person has 2 or more genetically different sets of cells in their body. “One chromosome too many to be declared a woman for the purposes of athletic competition” Ewa Klobukowska - 1964 Olympic sprint bronze medallist who was the first woman to fail the sex chromosome test during the 1967 European Cup. She had to return all her medals, though gave birth to a baby the following year.

Answer 15

Frequency - 1 in 500/1000 male births. Two or more extra X chromosomes—XXY or more rarely XXXY. Above average height, may be overweight. May have high-pitched voices, asexual to feminine body contours, as breast enlargement, comparatively little facial and body hair. Often sterile - their testes and prostate gland are small and so produce small amounts of testosterone and low amounts of sperm. Can have learning difficulties, however KS can often go unnoticed. No evidence that this associates with homosexuality, but a number of individuals can feel transgender. The feminizing effects of this hormonal imbalance can be reduced if individuals are regularly given testosterone from age of puberty.

Answer 16

Inherit an extra Y chromosome - genotype is XYY. Usually tall, often slender. Tend to produce higher levels of testosterone. During adolescence, they can develop severe facial acne, and can be poorly coordinated. Usually fertile and lead ordinary lives as adults, many unaware of the abnormality. It had been suggested that the high testosterone levels of XYY men can make them more prone to violence and criminal activity. Much of this stems from some studies between 1965 and 1968 although many later studies cast serious doubt on any direct and simple linkage.

Answer 17

Stefan Kiszko- spent 16yrs in prison for the murder of 11yr-old Lesley Molseed in Manchester 1975 before it was shown that his semen contained no sperm, in contrast to the sperm-containing semen found on the girl’s clothes. This sperm provided the DNA evidence that helped convict the real murderer. The idea of a link between XYY and criminality has been used in television “The XYY man” and “Alien III Richard Speck- argued his acne and aggressive behaviour was proof of XYY so responsible for his uncontrollable urges and mass murders. His karyotype showed not.

Answer 18

International Standard of Cytogenetic Nomenclature. (some examples) 46,XX - Normal Female Karyotype 46,XY - Normal Male Karyotype These descriptions say there are 46 chms and that it is a male or female. 47,XY,+21 Male with 47 instead of 46 chms and the extra chm is a 21. (Down Syndrome) 46,XX,del(14)(q23) Female with 46 chms with a deletion of chm 14 on the long arm (q) at band 23. 46,XY,dup(14)(q22q25) Male with 46 chms with a duplication of chm 14 on the q arm involving bands 22 to 25.

Answer 19

This belief also held true for animals and plants allowing the domestication of various species since over 12,000 years ago. During this time it was widely obvious that one can selectively breed for good characteristics such as wool meat and even behaviour.

Answer 20

1859 - Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species, describing the theory of evolution by natural selection. This theory required genetic inheritance to work. 1866 - Gregor Mendel, an Austrian Monk, publishes Experiments in Plant Hybridization, laying out the basic theory of genetics. Incredibly, it was completely ignored until 1900.

Answer 21

In the 1860s he noticed that if pea plants producing purple flowers were pollinated by white flowered pea plants, the resulting seeds all produced plants with purple coloured flowers. Mendel crossed fertilized two plants, one with white flowers with one with purple flowers. The hybrids, the F1 generation, all had purple flowers. Mendel allowed F1 generation plants to self- fertilize. Their offspring, the F2 generation, expressed (demonstrated) both purple and white flowers. The ratio of plants with purple to white flowers was always 3:1

Answer 22

The F1 generation plants all resembled only one parent plant; i.e. one variation of the trait is dominant. The F2 generation showed plants with both variations of the character, purple and white. The variation of the trait that was only seen in the F2 generation (white flowers) is recessive. Looking at the F3 generation, Mendel discovered that the F2 generation actually consisted of 3 different types of plants: Pure breeding purple Pure breeding white. Non-pure breeding purple. The ratio was actually 1:2:1.

Answer 23

An individual with 2 identical alleles is said to be homozygous, while an individual with 2 different alleles is said to be heterozygous. The genetic make-up of an individual is its genotype. The appearance or expression of the genotype is called its phenotype. Dominant genes are represented by uppercase letters, e.g. purple (P). Recessive genes are represented by lowercase letters, e.g. white (p).

Answer 24

Principle of segregation: Each gamete carries only one allele for seed shape, because the alleles have segregated during meiosis.

Answer 25

1) Dominant allele for seed shape, Recessive allele for seed shape 2) Chromosomes replicate 3) Meiosis I Alleles segregate 4) Meiosis II Results: Gametes

Answer 26

Knowledge of which allele has been inherited at one locus gives no information on the allele has been inherited at the other locus

Answer 27

Principle of independent assortment: The genes for seed shape and seed colour assort independently, because they are located on different chromosomes.

Answer 28

Mendel published his findings in 1866 in the journal Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brunn. cited only three times over the next 35 years! 1900 - other scientists (Hugo de Vries Carl Correns Erich von Tschermak) rediscovered his work. however, Mendel had long since died in 1884

Answer 29

Sexual reproduction in humans occurs with the fusing of two gametes (the oocyte and sperm) each with one half of the pairs of 23 chromosomes. The resulting zygote therefore inherits one copy of a chromosome, with the respective genes, from each parent.

Answer 30

- A normal (somatic) cell has two variants (alleles) for a Mendelian trait. - A gamete (sperm, egg, pollen, ovule) contains one allele, randomly chosen from the two somatic alleles. E.g. if you have one allele for brown eyes (B) and one for blue eyes (b), somatic cells have Bb and each gamete will carry one of B or b chosen randomly.

Answer 31

If your two alleles are different (heterozygous, e.g. Bb), the trait associated with only one of these will be visible (dominant) while the other will be hidden (recessive). E.g. B is dominant, b is recessive.

Answer 32

Haploid: containing one copy of each chromosome (n=23) Diploid: containing two copies of each chromosome (2n=46)

Answer 33

Appears in both sexes with equal frequency Each generation is usually effected, i.e. does not skip generations Offspring have a 50% chance of inheriting the trait/disease from an affected parent Both sexes transmit the trait to their offspring Unaffected parents do not transmit the trait Affected offspring must have an affected parent unless they posses a new mutation

Answer 34

The Habsburgs passed on a gene for an inherited condition known as mandibular prognathism which, in mild forms, is relatively common and causes a jutting jaw or drooping lower lip.

Answer 35

The Habsburgs passed on a gene for an inherited condition known as mandibular prognathism which, in mild forms, is relatively common and causes a jutting jaw This shows a pattern whereby the gene allele for the Habsburg jaw (H) is dominant over a normal shaped jaw (h). Therefore: heterozygotes (H/h) containing both an allele for the Habsburg jaw and one for a normal jaw will nevertheless be born with the Habsburg jaw. If two heterozygous (H/h) parents produce children, then there is one chance in four of any of their offspring inheriting both “h” alleles and so having a normal jaw; the classic 3:1 ratio among offspring of heterozygous parents. If one parent is homozygous for the Habsburg jaw (H/H), even if the other parent has a normal jaw (h/h), then all children will have the Habsburg jaw, i.e. they will be heterozygotes (H/h). If both parents have normal jaws, and are therefore homozygotes (h/h), then all offspring will have normal jaws also. However, if one parent is heterozygous (H/h) while the other has a normal jaw (h/h), then there is a 50% chance that any child will have a normal jaw or the Habsburg jaw, a 1:1 ratio.

Answer 36

Males and females are equally likely to be affected On average the recurrence risk to the unborn sibling of two carrier parents is ¼ Trait is characterisitically found in siblings, not parents Trait tend to skip generations Appears more frequently among children of consanguine marriages The family tree of a recessive gene is very different from a dominant one, as only one or two generations will suddenly show the disease when individuals with the same gene marry

Answer 37

Charles Darwin was one of the first to realise the ill effects of inbreeding and advantages of cross-breeding

Answer 38

A. Sex-linked Inheritance e.g. haemophilia B. Mitochondrial Inheritance C. Polygenic Inheritance e.g. skin and eye color D. Co-dominance e.g. blood type E. Incomplete penetrance F. Multifactorial inheritance

Answer 39

When a gene for a genetic disease occurs on the X chromosome as opposed to one of the autosomes, X-linked recessive inheritance is seen (X-linked dominant inheritance is rare).

Answer 40

The reason females are less affected by X-linked recessive diseases is due to the presence of two X chromosomes. They can carry the affected gene on one X chromosome without developing the disease but can pass it on to their sons, i.e. women are unaffected heterozygotes, or carriers.

Answer 41

Males with a mutant gene are affected Females with one mutant gene are unaffected carriers

Answer 42

Queen Victoria was almost certainly a heterozygous carrier of the haemophilia gene… she passed the gene to Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany. He suffered joint pain that was aggravated by cold weather. Seeking warmer climates abroad during the winter, it was while in the south of France, in March 1884, that he slipped and fell in the Yacht Club in Cannes, injuring his knee and dying next morning. Prince Leopold passed the gene to his only daughter, Alice, who had a haemophilic son, Prince Rupert of Teck, who bled to death after a car accident at the age of 20. two more of Queen Victoria's daughters, Alice and Beatrice, carried the gene, to several royal families in Europe, including Spain and, more famously, Russia with the birth of Alexis, the son of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia.

Answer 43

X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets: males are typicaly more severly affected than females. Rett syndrome, incontinentia pigmenti type 2 and Aicardi syndrome, are usually fatal in males either in utero or shortly after birth, and are therefore predominantly seen in females. The key is to look at the offspring of the mating of an affected male and a normal female. If the affected male has an affected son, then the disease is not X-linked. All of his daughters must also be affected if the disease is X-linked.

Answer 44

Since the Y chromosome is relatively small and contains very few genes, relatively few Y-linked disorders occur Because males inherit a Y chromosome from their fathers, every son of an affected father will be affected. Because females only inherit an X chromosome from their fathers, and never a Y chromosome, female offspring of affected fathers are never affected. all males are affected. Females are not.

Answer 45

Azoospermia: complete inability to produce sperm caused by a deletion of the azoospermia factor (AZF) region. Abnormal or Absent Testicular Development: disruption of the sex determining region Y (SRY) responsible for normal development of the male gonads.

Answer 46

During sexual reproduction mitochondria are passed on to offspring only through the egg and not the sperm as it is only the nucleus of the sperm that enters the egg during fertilisation. Therefore, only females can pass on mitochondria and mitochondrial diseases such as mitochondrial myopathies. As mutations occurring in mitochondrial DNA are passed on only through females it is possible to determine to what extent individuals share the same maternal ancestor.

Answer 47

These conditions tend to “run in families” but do not show typical patterns seen with the Mendelian inherited dominant or recessive diseases. Skin color, for example, is multifactorially determined, as is height and intelligence.

Answer 48

Two genes inherited, one from each parent. Individual who is A or B may be homozygous or heterozygous for the antigen. Heterozygous: AO or BO Homozygous: AA or BB

Answer 49

Penetrance means the probability that a person carrying the gene for a dominant disease will manifest it For a true dominant it will always be 100%

Answer 50

Many common traits and diseases show multifactorial inheritance where there is more than one genetic factor involved and, where environmental factors can participate in the development of a condition. Richard Reynolds, one of founders of the cigarette industry died of emphysema years of smoking. This was followed by two of his four children, and many subsequent family members who also smoked

Answer 51

Both parents must be carriers – if so, there is a 1 in 4 chance of a child inheriting 2 copies of the gene defect and so suffering with the disease

Answer 52

If one parent suffers with the disease and has one copy of the defective gene, then there is a 50% chance of the children inheriting it and so suffering with the disease

Answer 53

Mother can pass on trait to sons (who may die early in development) and daughters Father cannot pass on trait to sons, only daughters (but many fathers might not live).

Answer 54

If mother is a carrier then 50% of her sons can inherit the X chromosome containing the defective genes (remember she has 2 X chms). Father cannot pass his X chm to his sons – only his Y chm

Answer 55

A father has only one Y chm that he must pass to all his sons. Therefore, all sons would suffer

Answer 56

DNA structure Deoxyribonucleic acid uses 4 nucleotides adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C) to code for all proteins, peptides and RNA’s needed by the body.

Answer 57

Types of mutation * Aneuploidy * Chromosomal rearrangements * Dynamic mutations * SNPs and indels Mutation Location * RNA processing mutations * Splice site mutations * Regulatory mutations

Answer 58

Aneuploidy is an abnormal number of chromosomes

Answer 59

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.

Answer 60

Mosaicism can be: * somatic (ie in most body cells) or * gonadal (confined solely to the gonads).

Answer 61

* Around 85-90% of people with chronic myelogenous leukemia have the Philadelphia chromosome which is formed by the t(9;22)(q34;q11) translocation. * ABL is involved in cell proliferation, differentiation and migration and is tightly regulated * The new fusion gene, called BCR-ABL1, promotes cell proliferation and block apoptosis but isn’t tightly regulated.

Answer 62

Very rarely a person may have three copies of only part of 21. One way this can happen is an unbalanced translocation. Unbalanced translocations can result in offspring with gene copy number variation.

Answer 63

Acrocentric chromosome: A chromosome in which the centromere is located quite near one end of the chromosome

Answer 64

Robertsonian translocations occur between acrocentric chromosomes Around 4% of cases of Down’s syndrome are caused by a translocation, most commonly by a Robertsonian translocation between chromosomes 14 and 21 Offspring? Translocations can result inheritable forms of Downs syndrome.

Answer 65

Microsatellites (Short Tandem Repeats; STR): repeated sequences of around 2-5bp, such as CA, CAG or ATTC

Answer 66

Minisatellites: repeated sequences of between 14 and 100 base.

Answer 67

Variable number tandem repeats (VNTR): Linear arrangement of multiple copies of short repeated DNA sequences that vary in length.

Answer 68

The UCSC human genome browser provides access to multiple sources of information about the human genome and genetic disorders.

Answer 69

* Autosomal dominant * CAG repeat in exon 1 of the huntingtin (HTT) gene * Progressive neurological disorder Symptoms * 12/100000 in uk * progressive degeneration of neurons within the brain. * Average age of onset is 35 to 44 but can occur in juveniles. * symptoms can include uncontrolled movements, loss of intellectual abilities, and emotional and psychiatric problems. * Death usually occurs with 15 to 20 years of onset.

Answer 70

- Starting (template) strand of genomic DNA - Replicating strand detaches inappropriately - Replicating strand slips from its proper alignment with the template strand by one repeat (R) length. Mismatched R2 repeat loops out. - Newly synthesized strand contains an extra repeat

Answer 71

* X-linked * 1 in 4,000 males and 1 in 8,000 females, with males being more severely by the disorder in general. * mild to moderate intellectual disability * Anxiety and hyperactive behaviour. * Most males and around half of females have features that include a long and narrow face, large ears, a prominent jaw and forehead, unusually flexible fingers, flat feet, and enlarged testicles after puberty in males.

Answer 72

* CNVs are repeats longer than 100bp * Entire genes can be deleted or duplicated multiple times * This can occur by different mechanisms.Same gene, different disorders

Answer 73

MECP2 * Involved in the regulation of gene expression * Important in nerve cells MECP2 duplication syndrome * Intellectual disability, delayed development, and seizures. * Males more often affected than females. Rett syndrome * Appear normal at birth but develop problems with communication, learning and coordination. * Other symptoms include small head, breathing abnormalities, seizures, scoliosis and sleep disturbances * Affects almost exclusively females * Associated with a variety of mutation types

Answer 74

* Rett syndrome is an X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder * Mostly affects females (some males) * Incidence: 1 in 10,000-15,000 female births * Features profound intellectual disability and psychomotor regression * May first present between 6 and 18 mo of age

Answer 75

Epilepsy - Antiseizure medications GI issues - Dysphagia: G-tube Constipation: osmotic and stimulant laxatives Reflux: H2-blockers, proton pump inhibitors Movement Disorders - ACh receptor antagonist, dopamine agonists Autonomic dysfunction - SSRIs, carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (off label) Scoliosis - TLSO (thoracic/lumbar/ sacral orthotic) brace, AFO (ankle/foot orthotic) Bone health - Vitamin D3, calcium carbonate, bisphosphonates Cardiac issues - Prolonged QT: β-blockers Sleep difficulties - α-agonists, antidepressant medications (off label)

Answer 76

▪ Trofinetide (NNZ-2566) is the 2-methylproline–substituted analogue of GPE, which is the N-terminal tripeptide cleavage product of IGF-1 ▪ Trofinetide is thought to: ‒ Inhibit overactivation of inflammatory microglia and astrocytes ‒ Increase the amount of IGF-1 in the brain ‒ Increase synaptic connections

Answer 77

* In ~90% of cases the duplication is inherited from a carrier mother * MDS has an estimated live birth prevalence in males of 1/150,000. * 27-50% of cases do not live beyond 25 years of age *Severe intellectual disorder *Developmental delay *Impaired motor coordination (ataxia) *Lack of language *Lack of muscle tone (hypotonia) and progressive spasticity *Epilepsy *Recurrent infections *Reduced sensitivity to pain *Gastrointestinal disorders (reflux or constipation) *Dental oral disorders *Ophthalmologic and hearing disorders *Autistic features *Early morbidity

Answer 78

- Ionising radiation

Answer 79

UV exposure can cause the formation of pyrimidine (C or T) dimers causing deletions to occur during DNA replication.

Answer 80

When it is not possible to tell if the variant is due to an insertion or deletion the mutation is referred to as INDEL Mutation. Normal - Substitution - Deletion - Insertion

Answer 81

* Nonsynonymous: alters the amino acid sequence of a protein. * Synonymous: does not alter amino acid sequences.

Answer 82

The initiation of transcription and gene specific regulation requires the genes to have specific sequence motifs, altering these can affect gene regulation

Answer 83

It’s all in the blood * One gene multiple phenotypes * Mutation types * Gene environment and gene gene interaction Case study * Diagnosis * Genetic testing * Treatment

Answer 84

* Main oxygen carrying protein in the blood * Found within red blood cells * Tetrameric (quaternary) protein * The majority of haemoglobin in adults is in the form of haemoglobin A * Haemoglobin A has 2 alpha chains and 2 beta chains

Answer 85

- Chromosome 11 ( Locus control region, Beta Globulin Cluster) - Chromosome 16 (Locus control region, Alpha Globulin Cluster)

Answer 86

Fetal heamoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than the adult form

Answer 87

Gene copy number variation * Direct disruption of a gene * Changes of gene environment and regulation

Answer 88

When a gene has been inactivated by mutation, it can accumulate further mutations and become a pseudogene (ψ), which is homologous to the functional gene(s) but has no functional role (or at least has lost its original function)

Answer 89

* All globin genes are descended by duplication and mutation from an ancestral gene that had three exons. * The ancestral gene gave rise to myoglobin, leghemoglobin, and α- and β-globins. * The α- and β-globin genes separated in the period of early vertebrate evolution, after which duplications generated the individual clusters of separate α- and β-like genes.

Answer 90

* Failure to thrive as child * Severe anaemia, requiring transfusions * Swollen belly due to splenomegaly * Bone deformity, due to bone marrow expansion * Excess iron due to blood transfusions * Carriers can present with mild anaemia

Answer 91

Main symptoms * Painful episodes called sickle cell crises, which can be very severe and can last up to a week * Increased risk of serious infections * Anaemia (tiredness and shortness of breath) - Abnormal blood cell shape

Answer 92

* sudden change in temperature * very strenuous or excessive exercise * Dehydration * infections * stress * high altitudes * alcohol * smoking * pregnancy * other medical conditions, such as diabetes Being a carrier for sickle cell has been reported to be 50% protective against mild clinical malaria, 75% protective against admission to the hospital for malaria, and almost 90% protective against severe or complicated malaria.

Answer 93

Natural selection: the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype.

Answer 94

* Normal stability * Oxidised heme iron is resistant to methemoglobin reductase * Heterozygotes cyanosis (asymptomatic)

Answer 95

* Hb keeps its high affinity structure * Less oxygen available to tissue * Autosomal dominant * Polycythaemia in heterozygotes * Lethal in Asn Homozygotes

Answer 96

* Unstable * Hb precipitation * Hemolysis * Low oxygen affinity * Autosomal dominant

Answer 97

* A recessive genetic condition in which the lungs and digestive system become clogged with thick sticky mucus. * Prevalence is 1 in 2,500 newborn infants. * Carrier rate of 1 in 25

Answer 98

CFTR is a member of the ATP-Binding Cassette (ABC) transporter family that functions as a gated chloride channel located in the mucus membranes. Defects in this channel result in the mucus having less osmotic potential and so thicker.

Answer 99

oMedicines for lung problems * antibiotics to prevent and treat chest infections * mucus thinner * bronchodilators * steroid medicine oExercise oAirway clearance techniques oDietary and nutritional advice oLung transplants

Answer 100

* 1-25 to 1-30 in Ashkenazi Jews * 1 in 300 in general population * Other at risk groups French Canadian, Pennsylvania Dutch, Irish, and Cajun backgrounds

Genetics Flashcards

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