germany Flashcards
(119 cards)
1
Q
who forces the kaiser to abdicate?
A
Prince Max of Baden is appointed Chancellor and forces the Kaiser to abdicate. Agrees on an armistice with Wilson under the condition the Kaiser abdicates.
2
Q
when was the kaiser abdicated?
A
9th november 1918
3
Q
what was the ebert-groener pact?
A
agreed that the army would support the Weimar Republic as long as the military was not reformed and could remain right-wing aristocracy.
4
Q
what did general groener tell the kaiser?
A
that the army would no longer support him.
5
Q
wilhelmshaven mutiny
A
on 28th October where two ships refused to attack British ships.
6
Q
kiel mutiny
A
on 3rd November 1920 was when thousands of sailors took over a naval base against officers. By the 6th this had spread to many other ports, cities and naval stations and began a fully-fledged political revolution.
7
Q
what did worker’s councils demand?
A
political reforms such as the abdication of the Kaiser, end of aristocratic privilege and the implementation of socialist policies.
SPD called on workers in Berlin to join a general strike to force the Kaiser to abdicate.
8
Q
what happened to the Bavarian monarchy?
A
The Bavarian monarchy ended with the declaration of a Bavarian Republic on 12th November 1918.
9
Q
how often did ebert use article 48?
A
Ebert uses Article 48 (rule by decree) on 136 different occasions. Often he did this just to override opposition in the Reichstag- undermined the principles of democracy.
10
Q
what happened to many undemocratic institutions?
A
they still survive. The civil service at senior levels was made up of the aristocracy and many judges were monarchist and anti-democratic.
Right wing conspirators (Munich and Kapp) were treated very leniently. The army crushed left wing revolts and supports trouble from the right. Article 102 guaranteed independence of monarchist and antidemocratic judges.
11
Q
what did proportional representation lead to?
A
Due to proportional representation smaller parties could gain representation in the Reichstag. This allows smaller, often extreme parties to gain publicity and support the system- proliferation of small parties that lacked national consensus. Lack of majority led to many short lived coalitions.
12
Q
what did the new German constitution provide?
A
a wider right to vote than other countries such as Britian and France. Women can vote on the same terms as men and are able to become deputies in Reichstag and state parliaments.
13
Q
how could referendums be called?
A
Referendums could be called by the president, the Reichsrat or by the people, if a tenth of the electorate applied for one- although they could be overridden by the Reichstag.
14
Q
what did the Weimar constitution set out?
A
clear rights of the individual. ‘All Germans equal before the law,’ ‘full religious freedom’ and censorship was forbidden. Guaranteed civil liberties.
15
Q
how many coalitions were there between 1919-1923?
A
10 coalitions in 1919-1923 undermined confidence in the democratic system (Scheidemann and Luther), especially with SPD leaving the Grand Coalition in 1923.
16
Q
growth of political extremism
A
Support for moderate parties ebbed away during social, economic, and political crisis.
Growth of political extremism and right-wing nationalists assassinating prominent politicians. Rathenau 1922 had 700,000 protesting on the streets of Berlin. 376 political assassinations (354 from right-wing and 22 left-wing) however 326 right-wing murderers went unpunished.
17
Q
kapp putsch
A
1920 took over Berlin for five days after 13,000 Freikorps refused to be dismissed but army refused to fire the old soldiers. Ebert called a general strike which showed political leniency and the weakness of Weimar government.
18
Q
what happened to the communist led revolution in saxony, march 1921?
A
Rising crushed by police and 145 killed.
19
Q
spartacist uprising
A
1919 was easily supressed. Started 5th January and was crushed by the 13th after brutal street fighting and the execution of Liebknecht and Luxemberg. Failed to gain working class support.
But Ebert used Freikorps to exploit the situation and showed a heavy reliance on militias rather than the army.
20
Q
munich putsch
A
1923 had Hitler and Ludendorff arrested for five years. Extreme failure of their original plan as Nazis were banned and 14 were killed. Only served 9 months.
21
Q
what was stresemann’s foreign policy aim?
A
policy of fulfilment which meant complying with the Treaty of Versailles whilst negotiating for better terms. Took a much more pragmatic approach, rather than combative or belligerent as right-wing nationalists would be angry either way.
22
Q
when were forces removed from the zones?
A
Forces were removed from Zone 1 in 1926, Zone 2 in 1929 and Zone 3 in 1930. Foreign policy success led to Dawes 1924 and Young 1929.
23
Q
who opposed the locarno pact?
A
Hugenberg opposed the Locarno Pact and cooperation between Germany and Western allies The ‘Freedom Law,’ launched by right-wing parties and organisations, attempted to annul the agreement in the Young Plan.
24
Q
when was the policy of fulfilment met?
A
in 1930 when all foreign forces were removed from German soil. The Dawes and Locarno Pact had shown evidence of German willingness.
25
when were germany admitted into the league of nations?
1926 Germany are admitted into the League of Nations as a permanent member of the council which aimed to resolve disputes without war. Stresemann is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
26
locarno pact
1925 had Germany accept the Western border (Rhineland Pact) and the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to France and Eupen-Malmédy to Belgium.
France would not be able to invade German territory should there be any dispute between them and Poland or Czechoslovakia. This left the issue of the Eastern border open for later revision.
It guaranteed that the occupation of the Ruhr 1923 would never be repeated- but angered German nationalists. Led to the League of Nations and fulfilment.
(Arbitration treaties) meant that disputes would be settled by a ‘conciliation committee’ and there would be a ‘mutual guarantee’ to avoid war.
27
dawes plan
1924 made France leave the Ruhr and made it clear that Germany was willing to pay reparations. They received a loan of 800 million marks from USA.
28
treaty of berlin
1926 renewed the earlier treaty between Germany and Russia. They agreed to continue trading and cooperating, and Germany would remain neutral in war as long as USSR was not the aggressor. Helped Germany get closer to their aim of revising the Eastern frontiers.
29
treaty of rapallo
1922 was an important symbolic step away from post-war isolation as it allowed Germany to develop new weapons and train pilots away from allied powers- but angered the allies.
30
young plan
1929 obliged the Germans to pay reparations until 1988. Significantly reduced reparations bill- £6.5 billion to £1.8 billion, Germany took sole responsibility and France and Britian agreed to withdraw their troops.
31
kellog-briand pact
1928 was an ineffective but thoughtful pact that renounced the use of offensive wars to settle disputes between France, Germany, and USA. It had symbolic importance as an international agreement to avoid war but was ineffective due to lack of proper enforcement.
32
Gleichschaltung
the process of Nazification by which Hitler established a system of totalitarian control and complete subservience to the state.
33
when and where was the first concentration camp?
in dachau, march 1933.
| 70 camps by the end of the year.
34
what percent voted for non-Nazi parties in the 1933 elections?
64%
35
what happened to judges and lawyers in 1933?
they were merged with the League of Nationalist Socialist Lawyers. Set up ‘Special Courts’ with 3 Nazi and 2 non-Nazi judges which showed how the justice system could not interfere with state terror.
Between 1934-39, 3400 people were tried at ‘People’s Court,’ with the majority being communists and socialists given the death penalty.
36
SS
controlled the Third Reich police system and concentration camps. Chief was Himmler. They had to be disciplined, obedient and racially pure. Used a systematic operation of ruthless violence and murder. 500,000 in 1933 to 3 million in 1934.
37
SD
was established in 1931 and were the internal security service that monitored public opinion such as plebiscites. 50,000 members in 1939, led by Heydrich. Staffed by amateurs but committed Nazis.
38
Gestapo
was relatively small- only 20,000 members in 1939. Generally not Nazis, but professional police dedicated to serve the state. An overwhelming number of informers meant they resorted to arbitrary arrest and preventive custody.
Instilled fear and suspicion everywhere through double agents. Used torture to extract information and kept German society under surveillance.
39
effective political resistance
SPD voted against the Enabling Act. KPD set up underground network and revolutionary unions in Berlin and Hamburg.
40
ineffective political resistance
Attacked each other. SOPADE not equipped to attack. 10% of KPD killed in 1933 and were the first party to be banned. Thalmann killed early on.
41
effective workers resistance
37 strikes in 1935 and 250 in 1937. High levels of absenteeism, slow working, and breaking machines. Gestapo found 1.5 million anti-Nazi leaflets.
42
ineffective workers resistance
Hesitant. Ringleaders of 1936 Opel Car Factory strike were imprisoned. 4000 people that went on strikes in 1935 were imprisoned. Sabotage was made a criminal offence. Would not remove Hitler from power.
43
effective protesant church resistance
Resisted Aryan Paragraph and developed Confessional Church in 1934 led by non-Nazis. Refused to display swastika flag.
44
ineffective protesant church resistance
Pastors had salary dropped, banned from teaching, and arrested. 700 imprisoned by 1937. Many were loyal to Hitler with the exception of Martin Neimoller.
45
effective roman catholic church resistance
‘Within Burning Grief’ 1937 condemned Nazi hatred of the church. Noisy public demonstrations at the trial of an arrested priest.
46
ineffective roman catholic church resistance
Concordat of 1933 agreed not to interfere with each other. Their resistance was partial, spasmodic, and ineffective.
47
effective youth resistance
HJ membership declined as less attended weekly parades. They hummed banned tunes, sang songs about sex and food. Political links to KPD and beat up HJ.
48
ineffective youth resistance
Amounted to little more than teenage rebelliousness- no serious threat to the regime. Youth were surrounded by Nazi ideology- gym, hikes, and military.
49
effective elite resistance
Amounted to little more than teenage rebelliousness- no serious threat to the regime. Youth were surrounded by Nazi ideology- gym, hikes, and military.
50
ineffective elite resistance
Within 3 months, Hitler had them purged from army leadership and replaced with more compliant generals. Britian and France allowed a peaceful takeover of Sudetenland- another victory without bloodshed and the conspiracy quickly faded into the background.
51
radio
Had been state regulated since 1925 and taken over by Reich governors in 1933. Established a unified radio system in 1934 with one station and communal loudspeakers. 70% of households owned one by 1939. Held key speeches that reached 56/70 million. Announced speeches by sirens and radio wardens reported attendance.
52
film
99% were not propaganda. Seen as a means for relaxation, rather than explicit propaganda. All state owned. Banned American films. Goebbles approved every film. Jud Suss 1940 justified the removal of Jews and Reifenstahl directed Olympia and Triumph of Will.
53
press
Reich Chamber kept a register of acceptable editors and journalists. Clause 14 enforced editors to exclude anything that may weaken the Reich. Nazi publishing houses gradually took over- owned 82% in 1944.
54
photos
Hoffman was Hitler’s personal photographer. He practiced different poses which were used on posters and cigarette packets and deepened support.
55
meetings and rallies
Attracted bystanders who could be won over. Goebbles believed rallies could transform people from ‘a little worm into part of a large dragon’. Orchestrated and manipulated mass emotion.
56
festivals
Held in numerous cities. Failure to attend would be reported to Gestapo. Includes Hitler’s birthday, Mother’s Day and Munich Putsch Remembrance.
57
Volksgemeinschaft
a key element in Nazi ideology which intended to achieve a social revolution and the creation of a new German society that were loyal, disciplined, and willing to serve the state.
58
young people: universities
All teachers had to sign a declaration in support of Hitler in November 1933. 15% of staff dismissed on racial and political backgrounds.
Students had to join GSL which required 4 months labour and 2 months SA camp. 25% avoided joining.
Little resistance as universities were already nationalist and antidemocratic so some voluntary cooperation.
59
young people: school curriculum
Promoted radical health by emphasis on PE and military drills. German lessons instilled a ‘consciousness of being German’ by studying Nordic sagas and stressed race and evolution. Geography taught Lebensraum. Children easily influenced.
60
young people: teachers
Law for the Reestablishment of a Professional Civil Service 1933 dismissed teachers on political unreliability or because they were Jewish. Pressured into joining NSTL but most complied.
From 1935, Ministry of Education used central directives to control what could be taught.
61
young people: HJ
Unsuccessful when created in 1926 but grew in 1933 when all other groups except Catholic were banned.
Law for Incorporation of German Youth 1936 gave HJ status of an official education movement.
Compulsory in 1939- 9 million members. Chance for trips away from home and sports attracted boys. Joined against parents. Political indoctrination by rituals, ceremonies, and songs.
Propaganda encouraged heroism and leadership.
Poor attendance in late 1930s due to harsh punishments for rigid rules.
62
young people: BDM
‘Be faithful, be pure, be German’ was the motto to prepare for role as housewives and mothers in Volksgemeinschaft. Compulsory in 1993. Bodies belonged to the nation.
Instructed in hygiene, cleanliness, and nutrition. Had gymnastics and dancing to stay fit. Liberating and could escape constraints of home life and have comradeship.
Unpopular when expected to do a year unpaid work in land and domestic service in 1935.
63
women
Incentive of marriage loans and ‘Mothers Cross’ raised birth rate. DFW established in 1933 which advised women on cooking and nutrition. 6 million members in 1939, but 70% were non-Nazis.
Reich Mothers Service trained women in motherhood services. 1.7 million attended by 1939.
Abortion restricted and birth control discouraged, showing high birth rate may not be due to Nazi policies. Contradictory policy when women removed from work to lower paying jobs.
After 1936 the regime began encouraging women to take up employment due to the rearmament programme- against Nazi ideology.
64
workers: DAF
Was the only official organisation that represented workers, led by Robert Ley, which meant that membership grew rapidly. Had a propaganda department to spread ideology by encouraging production and Volksgemeinschaft.
Could not bargain wages or influence policy as it was not a trade union. Had over 44,000 paid employees.
65
workers: KDF
Encouraged social equality by offering free rewards and leisure activities. Aimed to indoctrinate workers into Volksgemeinschaft but had unrealistic expectations of a one class basis- fights on cruise ships showed failure to indoctrinate workers into Nazi ideology.
Factories held classical music concerts in lunch breaks and workplaces for youth required 2 hours PE per week. 35 million members by 1936.
66
church: protestant
In 1933 Nazis created Reich Church under Nazi control and German Reich Bishop Ludwig Muller abolished all elective bodies after winning the July 1933 election.
Mass rally in November 1933 demanded to dismiss pastors who had not declared allegiance to new regime.
Forced to adopt Aryan Paragraph and 18 pastors who had converted from Judaism were dismissed.
Neimoller, Bonhoeffer, and other dissident pastors set up Confessional Church in September 1933 which resisted state interference in the church. Supported by 5,000 pastors.
‘Church Succession Campaign’ to persuade party members to renounce faith- 5% did.
Shows failure in coordinating Protestant Church as SS forbidden to wear uniform at church services, priests were forbidden from the Nazi party and Nazis could not hold office in church.
67
church: catholic
Were less susceptible to Nazi ideology as loyal to the Pope. Compromised with the Concordat of 1933 as they saw communism as a greater evil.
Voluntarily disbanded their trade unions when DAF took over in May 1933.
Nazis quickly broke agreement and forced Catholic organisations to close and killed priests in NOTLK.
Still supported the Nazis as the best way to protect church and preserve autonomy.
Clemens von Galen spoke out which led to restricted public meetings, increased censorship and Goebbles closed Catholic offices. 5% denounced faith.
‘Within Burning Grief’ 1937 had Gestapo and SS placed in churches and all youth groups closed down. 200 priests tried on sex charges. All church schools were community schools by 1939.
Confused and inconsistent policy- never renounced the concordat as it gave façade of cooperation. Religion remained a powerful force in Germany.
68
economic anti-semitism 1933-41
Boycott of Jewish shops 1st April 1933 which also attacked doctors and lawyers.
Ban on Jewish doctors in April- supposed to only treat Jewish patients but some continued on their normal practice for years.
By 1933, only 60% on non-Aryan lawyers were able to continue working.
69
social anti-semitism 1933-41
Law against the Overcrowding of German Schools and Universities in April 1933- restricted the number of Jewish children who could attend school and gave Aryan children more resources.
Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour 1935 outlawed marriage between Aryans and non-Aryans and sexual relations were illegal. Allegations were enough to secure a conviction.
Discrimination- banned Jews from public places until they were in ‘internal exile’ by 1935.
There was still some opposition as some refused, such as protesting the removal of the Feliz Mendelssohn statue.
By 1938, Jewish children could no longer attend private education and Jewish schools.
70
political anti-semitism 1933-41
The Civil Service Laws in April 1933 required Jews to be dismissed from the Civil Service. This was difficult as there was no definition of who was ‘racially’ Jewish.
Reich Press Law in October 1933 enabled the regime to apply strict censorship and close publications they disliked. This silenced Jewish journalists and editors, then forced to leave the country. 37,000 Jews left Germany.
Reich Citizenship Law (Nuremberg Laws) 15th September 1935 defined German citizens and classified Jews as subjects with fewer rights.
First Supplementary Decree in November 1935- defined ‘full Jew’ and a ‘half Jew’ as Mischlinge. Left them with obligations to the state but had no political rights.
71
what did the nuremberg laws leave the jews with?
obligations to the state but with no legal or political power against Nazi bureaucracy. However, many citizenship decisions were inconsistent as some Jews had parents who had converted to Christianity.
72
what did the civil service laws 1933 require?
required Jews to be sacked from the civil service. This had a devastating impact on middle class Jews. In 1933, 37,000 Jews left Germany.
73
what did the april 1933 laws restrict?
the number of Jewish children that could attend school. Aryan children were to be given money and attention rather than waste money on the enemies of Germany. Many Jewish professors in the universities lost their jobs. The Nazis were trying to segregate education.
74
what were many germans embarrassed by?
open discrimination. People were reluctant to stop seeing Jewish doctors they had seen for years. People in Leipzig blocked the removal of a statue of the Jewish composer Mendelssohn.
But open opposition was rare, and growing antisemitism gradually made people hesitant to see Jewish doctors. Only examples of isolated events.
75
why did the boycott in 1933 not work?
many businesses were half owned by Jews. A number of German citizens defiantly used Jewish shops. Hitler is keen to avoid instability and the boycott is called off after a day.
But propaganda from the boycott helped exclude Jews and showed deepening influence of German antisemitism by attacking doctors, lawyers, judges, and teachers.
76
what did acheiving the anschluss do for the development of anti-semitic policies?
Achieving the Anschluss- union between Germany and Austria- helped grow Hitler’s confidence. He demanded for Sudetenland to be handed over and had occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia by 1939.
His confidence in foreign policy began the more radical phase of Nazi anti-Semitism, seen in the rapid acceleration of economic campaigns against Jews in 1938.
77
decree of registration of jewish property
april 1938 confiscated all Jewish owned property worth over 5,000 marks. The number of Jewish businesses went from 40,000 to 8,000 in 1938-39.
78
jewish passports stamped with a 'j'
in October 1938 which made them identifiable in order to strip their individuality. They lost their entitlement to public welfare and now had to depend on Jewish community charities.
79
forbidden from theatre, schools, and had to change their names
november 1939. Had to change their names to Jewish names- Sarah and Israel.
80
what was kristallnacht?
9-10 November 1938 was the looting and vandalism of Jewish homes and businesses after the murder of Ernst von Rath. It was seen as an ‘uncontrolled outpouring of anti-Semitic feeling’ amongst radical elements of the Nazi movement.
81
what was the reaction to kristallnacht?
not met with universal approval as many were horrified by the destruction. Orchestrated by SA and SS who were instructed not to wear uniform. Goebbles was the chief instigator who planned the event to celebrate the 15th anniversary of the Munich Putsch 1923 and aimed to please Hitler.
82
outcome of kristallnacht
30,000 Jews placed in preventive detention and 267 synagogues destroyed.
SS ordered police to not intervene- fire brigades watched synagogues burn to the ground and only stopped this fire spreading to other buildings.
Goerring prevented insurance companies from paying out compensation to Jewish businesses and victims. Decree Excluding Jews from German Economic Life on 12th November 1938 accelerated Aryanisation of Jewish businesses.
83
voluntary emigration
37,000 Jews left Germany in 1933, including Einstein. 150,000 voluntarily left by 1938.
Nazis encouraged Jewish emigration and threatened to confiscate their assets- made the situation confusing. Emigration was easier for those with skills or family, but most German Jews wanted to stay.
84
when did voluntary emigration become urgent?
Became urgent after Kristallnacht and sought refuge. 9,000 Jewish children sent to Britain in 1938-39.
Encouraged Zionists to emigrate to Palestine, but they could only receive limited numbers and there was concern about Arab hostility.
85
why was controlled emigration a key policy aim?
as it enabled massive economic exploitation. Heydrich used Austria as a lab for developing SS policy.
Set up Central Office for Jewish Emigration which forced 45,000 Austrian Jews to emigrate 'by every possible means’.
War increased the number of Jews under Nazi control. 61% of Jews in Poland were in territory now occupied by Germany.
86
what did the SD do to all Jewish organisations?
amalgamated them into a single Reich Association.
East Poland was occupied by Russia and West Poland was incorporated into the German Reich.
The area in between was designated ‘General Government’ under Nazi governor Hans Frank and was a ‘dumping ground’ to depose of Jews displaced by conquest, intended to die there.
87
how did war against poland affect nazi policy?
made it extremely reactive- had no plan to create Lebensraum due to extreme Jewish deportation in October 1939.
Central Agency for Jewish Emigration arranged deportation of 300,000 Jews in Germany, 80,000 from Katowice, and all Jews in Vienna in October 1939.
Hans Frank complained that General Government could not take anymore Jews.
88
madagascar plan
The Madagascar Plan June 1940 aimed to resettle the French population in Vichy France and have 4 million Jews be sent to Madagascar- was far away, had more space and no political problems as opposed to Palestine (under British rule).
89
why was the madagascar plan a failure?
But failure to end the war with Britain meant the Royal Navy would disrupt mass transportation and Hitler turned his attention to Operation Barbarossa June 1941- conquering USSR and sending Jews to Siberia.
The driving force behind the plan shows determination of sending Jews away to die.
90
difference between the war in the west and the east
War in the West was a civilised struggle between the Western allies compared to the War in the East being a war of ‘racial annihilation’ and savage ideological intensity.
91
how many soviet jews were under german rule by 1941?
3 million
92
how were jews further exlcuded from society by 1941?
Banned from buying radios in November 1939.
Banned chocolate in December 1939.
Excluded from wartime rationing allowances in 1940.
Restricted from entering shops at certain times.
Needed a police permit to travel in 1941 and had to wear yellow Star of David.
93
what was blitzkrieg?
the German strategy of using air attacks with motorised army units to secure a quick victory. These defeated France and left Britain isolated in October 1940. France was now under Nazi puppet regime.
94
operation barbarossa
the USSR invasion in June 1941 which intended to eliminate the ‘Bolshevik-Jewish intelligentsia’. Complete victory seemed almost certain.
95
why were deportations and ghettoisation used?
to deal with huge Jewish populations displaced by military conquest and Germanisation. The first ghetto was established in Lodz, Poland in February 1940 which had 320,000 Jews living in the city.
96
warsaw ghetto
accommodated 400,000 Jews. They received 300 calories a day compared to the 2,300 calories from Germans in occupied Poland.
97
where were there other ghettos?
Danzig, Lublin, Vilnius, and Lvov. Remaining Jews were forced into labour gangs and put in barrack blocks.
98
what happened to jews in ghettos?
had their homes confiscated and had to sell valuables to survive.
Extreme overcrowding- 6 shared a room and 15 shared an apartment and basic necessities were scarce. Diseases such as typhus and tuberculosis spread quickly.
99
how did jewish authorites deal with ghettoisation?
tried to get around the regulations where possible, such as the black market being used to smuggle food.
Jewish leaders organised forbidden prayers and religious festivals. The Jewish Council of Elders acted responsibly and did their best to relieve suffering.
100
einzatsgruppen
a Holocaust by bullets. They were sent into the USSR in July 1941 to eliminate communist officials, Red Army commissars, partisans, and Jewish-Bolshevist intelligentsia.
101
why were the einzatsgruppen important?
Played an important role in the ‘ethnic cleansing’ of West Poland. Mass shooting and forced Jews into ghettos, and they followed behind the German army.
Killed 7,000 Jews in Poland in 1939. Killed 500,000 Jews between June-July 1941.
102
who were the einzatsgruppen supported by?
Were supported by auxiliary groups in Ukraine and Latvia. 40,000 men were involved, and they had many volunteers. Police Battalion 309 carried out a massacre in Bialystok in 1941 (burnt down the Great Synagogue with 2,000 Jews inside).
In 1941, Group A shot 250,000 Jews vs 45,000 in Group B. Showed how some groups restricted killing to ‘intelligentsia’ and partisans, but others killed as many Jews as possible.
103
where did the idea of the final solution come from?
Hitler’s ideological goals, the increasingly violent persecution of Jews by 1938 and the vast number of Jews being deported- as they had failed to send them to Madagascar or Siberia.
104
what happened at the wannsee conference?
January 1942, the implementation of systematic murder was agreed on. It was a meeting to inform senior bureaucrats of their roles in this decision.
Widened the existing programme of deportations rather than a new policy of all-out genocide.
105
who attended the wannsee conference?
Decided on shortly after the invasion of USSR on 22nd June. Compromised of 15 high ranking Nazis- Hitler and Himmler did not attend the meeting. Chairman was Heydrich.
106
Hitler did not bear sole responsibility for the Holocaust
Ordinary Germans shared some responsibility for Nazi crimes. Opposed what the Nazis stood for as they had not been indoctrinated but did not challenge the Holocaust- ‘paved with apathy.’
Goldhagen claims that at least 100,000 ordinary Germans were involved.
‘Feelings were certainly strong against the Jews, but what the regime had done to them was considered by nearly everyone excessive.
Deep rooted anti-Semitism in Germany.
Survey in 1945 in Germany found that 19% felt that ‘something had to be done to keep Jews in bounds.’
The Final Solution required much more than one man. Decisions were made by Nazi leaders and lesser officials. Millions involved in persecutions, deportations, and mass killings.
Simplistic assumption of Nazi dictatorship. Hitler may have had a ‘central role’ but the regime was dependent on chaos and consent. Nazi leaders competed for his approval- Himmler, Heydrich and Eichmann and shared extreme views to gain his attention.
107
autumn 1941
Jewish resistance group led by the Bielski brothers in Belarus. This became a permanent community of 1,200 partisans and provided refuge for Jews escaping ghettos.
108
december 1941
Chelmo was the first killing centre to be established. Carried out using mobile gas vans and carbon monoxide.
Majdanek became a concentration camp turned death camp. 200,000 died there, 60% of them Jews.
109
early 1942
Adopted use of Zyklon B.
Resistance from Jewish partisans. 10,000 active in Lithuania.
Hans Frank had to use large security forces to deal with 20 different Jewish partisan groups.
110
march 1942
More than half a million Jews killed at Belzec from 1942-43, along with several thousand gypsies. Originally a labour camp.
111
may 1942
Sobibor was built as a part of the construction programme decided at the Wannsee Conference. 250,000 victims died there.
112
july 1942
By 1943, Treblinka murdered 1 million people. It was constructed for the purpose of mass killing. 300,000 had been Jews.
113
jan 1943
Rising in Warsaw ghetto took the SS by surprise. They failed to crush the first rising. Defeated them in May 1943 by using air strikes, heavy weapons and 2,000 German troops.
114
spring 1943
Goebbles’ Total War speech and mass propaganda drive in German press. Increase in anti-Semitic propaganda in the autumn after mass bombing raids.
115
october 1943
Jewish revolt in Sobibor led to the escape of 800 prisoners. Closed down soon after.
116
1943-44
Auschwitz became the hub of Nazi’s vast killing machine. 1.8 million killed.
117
mid 1943
Main camps of Sobibor, Belzec and Treblinka close down after Jewish population in their vicinity had been killed.
Auschwitz II, Birkenau overshadowed Auschwitz I. This was an arrival centre for West transport and held main gas chambers and four crematoriums.
Auschwitz III was a huge industrial complex and produced essential goods for war effort.
118
summer 1944
Clear defeat. The allied landings in France led to a surge of propaganda.
119
autumn 1944
Frantic programme of evacuations and forced marches. Camps hurriedly closed down and inmates send West on death marches. Loss of life and suffering in Winter.
Freezing, illness, exhaustion. Hundreds were shot for failing to keep up peace. This was a constant experience.
Up to 400,000 died, many being women. Continued till the end of the war.
