Glaciation Flashcards
(178 cards)
1
Q
What are Milankovitch cycles?
A
A chronology of multiple glacial and interglacial periods caused by climate change since the start of the Pleistocene
Milankovitch cycles refer to the Earth’s orbital changes that affect climate over tens of thousands of years.
2
Q
What are the factors leading to climate change in the Pleistocene, Holocene, and Anthropocene?
A
- Milankovitch cycles
- Variations in solar output
- Variation in composition of atmospheric gases
- Volcanic eruptions
These factors contribute to the natural variability of Earth’s climate over geological timescales.
3
Q
Define the cryosphere.
A
The frozen water part of the Earth system, crucial for global systems
The cryosphere includes all forms of ice on Earth, such as glaciers, ice sheets, and sea ice.
4
Q
What are the classifications of ice masses by scale and location?
A
- Ice sheets
- Ice caps
- Cirque glaciers
- Valley glaciers
- Ice fields
These classifications help in understanding the distribution and dynamics of ice across different environments.
5
Q
What environments are associated with ice masses?
A
- Polar environments
- Temperate environments
Polar environments are typically characterized by extremely cold conditions, while temperate environments can experience a range of temperatures.
6
Q
What is the present-day distribution of high latitude ice sheets?
A
Currently found in regions such as Greenland and Antarctica
These ice sheets are critical indicators of climate change and are monitored for their responses to warming temperatures.
7
Q
What evidence exists for Pleistocene ice sheet extent?
A
Geological and geomorphological evidence, including glacial deposits and landforms
This evidence helps reconstruct past climates and understand the dynamics of ancient ice sheets.
8
Q
What is the significance of high altitude glaciated upland landscapes?
A
They provide evidence of relict landscapes from the Pleistocene.
This indicates historical changes in climate and environment.
9
Q
How do glaciers alter landscapes?
A
Through processes of erosion, entrainment, transport, and deposition.
These processes shape the surrounding terrain in various ways.
10
Q
At what scales do glacial landforms develop?
A
Macro-, meso-, and micro-scale.
Each scale has distinctive morphologies in different process environments.
11
Q
What are the process environments where glacial landforms develop?
A
- Sub-glacial
- Marginal
- Proglacial
- Periglacial
Each environment influences the types of landforms that can be created.
12
Q
What types of landforms are associated with cirque and valley glaciers?
A
- Cirques/corries
- Arêtes
- Pyramidal peaks
- Glacial troughs
- Truncated spurs/hanging valleys
- Ribbon lakes
These landforms indicate the past activities of glaciers.
13
Q
What landforms are formed due to ice sheet scouring?
A
- Roches moutonnees
- Knock and lochan
- Crag and tail
These features result from the erosion and movement of ice across the landscape.
14
Q
What are the types of glacial depositional features?
A
- Medial moraines
- Lateral moraines
- Recessional moraines
- Terminal moraines
- Drumlins
These features are formed from the accumulation of material deposited by glaciers.
15
Q
What are lowland depositional features created by glaciers?
A
- Till plains
- Lodgement till
- Ablation till
These features illustrate the extent and movement of glaciers in lowland areas.
16
Q
How can the assemblage of landforms be used in glaciology?
A
To reconstruct former ice extent, movement, and provenance.
This includes studying erratics, moraines, crag and tail, and drumlin orientation.
17
Q
What are examples of fluvio-glacial landforms?
A
- Kames
- Eskers
- Kame terraces
- Sandurs
- Pro-glacial lakes
- Meltwater channels
- Kettleholes
These landforms are formed by the interaction of water and glacial ice.
18
Q
What values do relict and active glaciated landscapes hold?
A
- Environmental value
- Cultural value
This includes aspects such as polar scientific research, wilderness recreation, and spiritual associations.
19
Q
What economic importance do glaciated landscapes have?
A
- Farming
- Mining
- Hydroelectric power
- Tourism
- Forestry
These activities highlight the practical benefits derived from these landscapes.
20
Q
What unique biodiversity is associated with glaciated and periglacial landscapes?
A
Tundra.
Tundra ecosystems play a crucial role in maintaining natural systems.
21
Q
What stakeholders are involved in managing challenges posed by glaciated landscapes?
A
- Conservationists
- Local and regional government
- Global organisations
- NGOs
These groups utilize a range of approaches from protection to sustainable management.
22
Q
True or False: Glaciated landscapes are only valued for their environmental aspects.
A
False.
They also have significant cultural and economic values.
23
Q
What actions range from exploitation to preservation in landscapes?
A
Actions taken in Yosemite Valley
This illustrates the spectrum of human interaction with natural environments.
24
Q
What are legislative frameworks used for in landscape management?
A
To protect and conserve landscapes through conservation and management at various scales
These frameworks are essential for sustainable land use.
25
What challenges does climate change pose for landscape management?
It makes management increasingly challenging, necessitating coordinated approaches at global, national, and local scales
## Footnote
This creates an uncertain future that requires mitigation and adaptation strategies.
26
What are the types of permafrost areas identified in periglacial landscapes?
Continuous, discontinuous, and sporadic areas of permafrost with a seasonally active layer
## Footnote
Understanding these types is crucial for studying periglacial environments.
27
Name some periglacial processes.
* Nivation
* Frost heave
* Freeze-thaw weathering
* Solifluction
* High winds and meltwater erosion
## Footnote
These processes shape the periglacial environment significantly.
28
What unique periglacial landforms are mentioned?
* Ice wedges
* Patterned ground
* Pingos
* Loess
## Footnote
These landforms contribute to distinctive periglacial landscapes.
29
What is glacial mass balance?
The relationship between accumulation and ablation in maintaining equilibrium
## Footnote
This concept is critical for understanding glacial dynamics.
30
What processes are involved in glacial accumulation?
* Direct snowfall
* Avalanches
* Wind deposition
## Footnote
These processes contribute to the overall mass of glaciers.
31
What processes are involved in glacial ablation?
* Melting
* Sublimation
* Calving
* Evaporation
* Avalanches
## Footnote
Understanding ablation is key to analyzing glacier health.
32
What factors control the rate of glacier movement?
* Altitude
* Basal temperature
* Slope
* Lithology
* Size
* Variations in mass balance
## Footnote
These factors can lead to positive and negative feedback in glacial systems.
33
What are some glacial erosional processes?
* Abrasion
* Quarrying
* Plucking
* Crushing
* Basal melting
* Subaerial freeze-thaw
* Mass movement
## Footnote
These processes shape the landscape and contribute to glacial features.
34
How do glacial and fluvioglacial deposits differ?
* Stratification
* Sorting
* Imbrication
* Grading
## Footnote
Recognizing these differences is important for sedimentary geology.
35
What are the two main types of threats faced by glaciated landscapes?
Natural hazards and human activities
## Footnote
Natural hazards include avalanches and glacial outburst floods, while human activities include leisure and tourism, reservoir construction, and urbanization.
36
How can human activity degrade glaciated landscapes?
Soil erosion, trampling, landslides, deforestation
## Footnote
These activities directly impact the fragile ecology and resilience of glaciated landscapes.
37
What major impact does climate change have on glacial mass balances?
Disruption of the hydrological cycle
## Footnote
This includes effects on meltwater, river discharge, sediment yield, and water quality.
38
True or False: Glaciated landscapes are only threatened by natural hazards.
False
## Footnote
They are also threatened by human activities.
39
Fill in the blank: Climate change alters glacial mass balances, which risks disruption of the _______.
hydrological cycle
40
What indirect actions by players can alter natural systems in glaciated landscapes?
Human activities that affect the environment
## Footnote
These actions can impact the natural balance and resilience of these ecosystems.
41
List some human activities that threaten glaciated landscapes.
* Leisure and tourism
* Reservoir construction
* Urbanization
42
What are the two main types of glaciers based on their location?
Land-based and marine-based glaciers
## Footnote
Examples include Mer De Glace (land-based) and the West Antarctic Ice Sheet (marine-based)
43
What characterizes marine-based glaciers?
Their base is below sea level
## Footnote
Some can go 2000m below sea level and be frozen directly to the seabed.
44
What distinguishes unconstrained glaciers from constrained glaciers?
Unconstrained glaciers are larger forms like ice sheets and ice caps, while constrained glaciers are limited by landscape features
## Footnote
Constrained glaciers, such as valley glaciers, tend to drain in one direction.
45
What are the characteristics of warm-based glaciers?
Temperate or wet, occur at high altitudes outside polar regions, with temperatures fluctuating above and below freezing
## Footnote
Water exists as a liquid at temperatures below 0 degrees due to pressure.
46
What causes warm-based glaciers to melt continually?
Having liquid at the bottom (basal ice)
## Footnote
The presence of debris at the bottom creates subglacial deposits and landforms.
47
What defines cold-based glaciers?
Polar glaciers with average temperatures below 0 degrees, often ranging from -20 to -30 at the surface
## Footnote
The basal layer remains frozen, even if the ice is thick.
48
What is the state of the basal layer in cold-based glaciers?
Permanently frozen to the bed with far less debris
## Footnote
Limited surface melt occurs during polar summer.
49
Fill in the blank: Unconstrained glaciers tend to be larger forms such as _______ and _______.
ice sheets and ice caps
50
True or False: Cold-based glaciers can experience significant surface melting during the polar summer.
False
51
What is a key characteristic of the temperatures in warm-based glaciers?
Temperatures fluctuate on the surface to above and below freezing
## Footnote
The rest below the surface is close to melting point.
52
What is the typical thickness range of cold-based glaciers?
Can be up to 500m thick
## Footnote
Despite their thickness, the base remains below freezing.
53
What is sub glacial bed deformation?
The movement of ice over soft sediments that grinds down and drags the sediments along the direction of flow.
## Footnote
This process can account for up to 90% of forward ice movement in some areas.
54
What is the relationship between the temperature of glaciers and their movement?
Warmer glaciers move faster than colder ones due to basal sliding and internal deformation.
## Footnote
Greater speeds can be achieved when glaciers move over deformable sediment.
55
List the factors that impact the rate of glacier movement.
* Altitude
* Gravity/gradient slope
* Friction
* Size
* Geology
* Mass balance
* Ice temperature
56
How does altitude affect glacier movement?
It affects temperature and precipitation, which can influence the mass balance of the glacier.
57
What effect does the gradient slope have on glacier movement?
The steeper the gradient, the faster the movement of the glacier.
58
Explain the role of friction in glacier movement.
Friction occurs as the ice contacts the ground, which must be overcome for movement. Glaciers flow fastest in their center.
59
How does the size of a glacier affect its movement?
The heavier the glacier, the more force is needed to make it move.
60
What geological conditions aid in increasing glacier velocity?
Impermeable rock aids basal sliding, increasing the glacier's velocity.
61
What is mass balance in the context of glaciers?
It affects the equilibrium of the glacier, determining whether it is advancing or retreating.
62
How does ice temperature influence glacier movement?
Colder ice moves slower because cold-based glaciers are stuck to the bedrock.
63
What are glacial surges?
Rare events where glaciers can collapse and move forward at up to 100 times normal velocity due to critical mass and slope.
64
What percentage of global glaciers experience glacial surges?
About 4%.
65
What temperature range characterizes periglacial landscapes?
-6 to 6 degrees
## Footnote
This temperature range is crucial for the processes that create periglacial landscapes.
66
What is the main cause of frost shattering in periglacial landscapes?
Water expands by 9% upon freezing
## Footnote
This expansion can lead to the formation of scree and block fields.
67
What processes lead to the formation of patterned ground in periglacial areas?
Contraction and cracking of rapidly freezing soils, ice wedges, frost heaving
## Footnote
These processes contribute to the unique geomorphology of periglacial landscapes.
68
What causes segregated ice to form in periglacial landscapes?
Migration of sub surface water to the 'freezing front' via suction
## Footnote
This process leads to the formation of ice lenses and pingos.
69
What is solifluction?
Mass movement of the active layer downslope
## Footnote
This process can create lobes and terraces in periglacial regions.
70
List the four basic processes that create distinctive geomorphology in periglacial landscapes.
* Freeze thaw Weathering
* Ground Ice
* Solifluction
* Nivation
## Footnote
These processes are fundamental to the development of periglacial features.
71
True or False: Wind and fluvial action are exclusive to periglacial areas.
False
## Footnote
While these processes exist in periglacial areas, they are not exclusive to them.
72
What does the term 'periglacial' literally mean?
'Edge' of glacial
## Footnote
This term describes areas that are adjacent to glacial regions.
73
What is the definition of Periglacial?
Periglacial literally means 'edge' of glacial.
74
Where are Periglacial areas typically found?
On the fringes of polar environments.
75
What is a key characteristic of Periglacial areas?
They contain permanently frozen ground (Permafrost).
76
What happens to the surface of the ground in Periglacial areas during warmer summers?
The surface of the ground thaws.
77
Are Periglacial environments permanently covered by ice?
No, they are not permanently covered by ice.
78
What are the typical temperature conditions in Periglacial areas?
Temperatures vary between below and just above freezing.
79
What is Solifluction?
A process associated with the movement of water-saturated soil down a slope in Periglacial areas.
80
What is Nivation?
A geomorphological process involving the effects of snow and ice on the landscape.
81
Fill in the blank: Permafrost is found in _______ areas.
[Periglacial]
82
True or False: Periglacial environments are located at low altitudes and low latitudes.
False
83
What other processes exist in Periglacial areas besides Solifluction?
Wind and fluvial action.
84
What is Frost Heave?
A process where the top layer of soil freezes, causing water particles to freeze and expand, forcing the top layer upwards.
## Footnote
Ice expands by 9% when frozen, which contributes to the heaving effect.
85
What is Frost Shattering?
A process where freeze-thaw weathering puts pressure on cracks in rocks, potentially shattering them.
## Footnote
This process occurs with greater severity in periglacial areas.
86
What are Block Fields?
Accumulations of rock fragments formed as a result of frost shattering.
## Footnote
They are significant features in periglacial environments.
87
What are Scree or Talus Slopes?
Slopes formed by the accumulation of loose rock debris from frost shattering processes.
## Footnote
These slopes are characterized by their steep angles and unstable materials.
88
What is Frost Creep?
A very slow form of mass movement where material moves downslope by just a few centimeters per year, even on steeper slopes.
## Footnote
This process contributes to the gradual alteration of landscapes in periglacial regions.
89
What is Solifluction?
A process that occurs in regions with permafrost, where the active layer melts in summer, forming a mobile water-saturated layer.
## Footnote
This can create stone banked or turf banked lobes on slopes of 10 - 20 degrees.
90
What features can Solifluction create on gentle slopes?
Terraces or benches.
## Footnote
These features result from the movement of saturated material downslope.
91
What climate changes influence processes associated with Periglaciation?
The transition from winter to summer.
## Footnote
This change affects the freeze-thaw cycles in periglacial environments.
92
Fill in the blank: Ice expands by ______ when frozen.
9%
## Footnote
This expansion plays a critical role in frost heave.
93
What is Solifluction?
A process common in periglacial environments where the active top layer provides enough water to allow flow to occur.
## Footnote
It involves saturated soil slumping downhill, forming solifluction lobes and sheets.
94
What are solifluction lobes?
Features formed when saturated soil slumps downhill during the summer.
## Footnote
They are part of the solifluction process.
95
What is the effect of differential rates of solifluction and frost creep on valley slopes?
It leads to one side of the valley being significantly steeper than the other.
## Footnote
For example, south-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere thaw more frequently, increasing soil moisture and promoting mass movement.
96
What is Nivation?
A localized process where both weathering and erosion occur around or beneath a snow patch.
## Footnote
It is characterized by snow accumulation in a hollow that grows year after year and eventually turns into ice.
97
What is a nivation hollow?
A hollow formed when ice moves downhill under its own weight and erodes the ground.
## Footnote
It is often initiated by the nivation process.
98
How does snow contribute to geomorphic activity in periglacial areas?
Snow enhances geomorphic activity by persisting into the melt season.
## Footnote
This can lead to the formation of features like cirques.
99
Fill in the blank: Solifluction is a process that occurs in _______ environments.
[periglacial]
100
True or False: Solifluction sheets are formed by the movement of saturated soil downhill.
True
101
What geographical feature can be initiated by the process of nivation?
Cirques
102
In which hemisphere are south-facing slopes more exposed to the sun, leading to less steep slopes?
Northern
103
What happens to snow that accumulates in a hollow over time?
It grows and turns to ice in the lower layers.
104
What is Solifluction?
A process common in periglacial environments where the active top layer provides enough water to allow flow to occur.
## Footnote
It involves saturated soil slumping downhill, forming solifluction lobes and sheets.
105
What are solifluction lobes?
Features formed when saturated soil slumps downhill during the summer.
## Footnote
They are part of the solifluction process.
106
What is the effect of differential rates of solifluction and frost creep on valley slopes?
It leads to one side of the valley being significantly steeper than the other.
## Footnote
For example, south-facing slopes in the northern hemisphere thaw more frequently, increasing soil moisture and promoting mass movement.
107
What is Nivation?
A localized process where both weathering and erosion occur around or beneath a snow patch.
## Footnote
It is characterized by snow accumulation in a hollow that grows year after year and eventually turns into ice.
108
What is a nivation hollow?
A hollow formed when ice moves downhill under its own weight and erodes the ground.
## Footnote
It is often initiated by the nivation process.
109
How does snow contribute to geomorphic activity in periglacial areas?
Snow enhances geomorphic activity by persisting into the melt season.
## Footnote
This can lead to the formation of features like cirques.
110
Fill in the blank: Solifluction is a process that occurs in _______ environments.
[periglacial]
111
True or False: Solifluction sheets are formed by the movement of saturated soil downhill.
True
112
What geographical feature can be initiated by the process of nivation?
Cirques
113
In which hemisphere are south-facing slopes more exposed to the sun, leading to less steep slopes?
Northern
114
What happens to snow that accumulates in a hollow over time?
It grows and turns to ice in the lower layers.
115
What is an ice wedge?
Downward narrowing masses of ice that are between 2 to 3 metres wide at the base and extend below the ground surface up to 10 metres.
## Footnote
Ice wedges are formed by the refreezing of the active layer during winter, causing soil to contract and cracks to open.
116
How do ice wedges form?
Ice wedges are formed by the refreezing of the active layer during winter, which causes cracks to open and fill with meltwater and sediment during summer.
## Footnote
The cracks then refreeze in winter, widening and deepening them.
117
What features are included under the term 'ice wedge polygons'?
Circles, Nets, Polygons, Steps and Stripes.
## Footnote
These features are formed by a series of movements resulting from frost action.
118
What causes frost push?
Hydrostatic pressure.
## Footnote
Frost push propels stones upwards, contributing to the formation of patterned ground.
119
What is frost heave?
A process that causes stones to migrate outwards, contributing to the formation of circles.
## Footnote
Frost heave works in conjunction with frost push to create patterns in the ground.
120
What happens to larger stones in a heaved circle?
They roll outwards due to gravity, leaving finer sediment in the centre.
## Footnote
This process contributes to the formation of stone polygons.
121
What relationship exists between patterned ground and slope angle?
There is a clear relationship where beyond a 30-degree angle, patterned ground can no longer form and rock avalanches may occur.
## Footnote
This indicates the stability of the ground and the conditions necessary for pattern formation.
122
Fill in the blank: The up doming of the circle created by heaving means that larger stones roll outwards due to _______.
gravity
123
What is patterned ground?
Ground that exhibits features such as polygons, nets, and stripes formed by frost action.
## Footnote
Patterned ground results from the combination of frost push and frost heave.
124
What are ice wedge polygons?
Ice wedge polygons are a type of patterned ground formed by the interaction of ice wedges with the soil surface.
## Footnote
They are characterized by their distinctive shapes and formations.
125
What are troughs in relation to ice wedges?
Troughs are depressions that occur between ice wedges.
## Footnote
They are part of the overall structure of patterned ground.
126
What are hydraulic pingos?
Hydraulic pingos are found in the discontinuous zone of permafrost or valley floors and grow from beneath the ground due to freely available groundwater.
## Footnote
They result from the upward movement of additional water under pressure towards an expanding ice core.
127
Where are hydrostatic pingos typically found?
Hydrostatic pingos are associated with low lying flat areas in zones of continuous permafrost.
## Footnote
An example includes the Mackenzie delta type.
128
How do hydrostatic pingos form?
Hydrostatic pingos form from the downward growth of permafrost, often after a small lake is enclosed with sediment.
129
What role do lakes play in the formation of hydrostatic pingos?
Lakes insulate the land below and prevent it from freezing.
## Footnote
As sediment is deposited, the lake infills and loses its insulating effect.
130
What happens to permafrost as a lake loses its insulating effect?
As the lake loses its insulating effect, the permafrost around it begins to encroach.
131
What is the active layer in the context of pingos?
The active layer refers to the upper layer of soil that thaws during the summer in permafrost regions.
132
What processes are associated with periglaciation?
Processes associated with periglaciation include the formation of pingos and changes in the active layer.
133
Fill in the blank: Hydraulic pingos grow from _______.
[beneath the ground]
134
Fill in the blank: Hydrostatic pingos are often formed after a small lake is enclosed with _______.
[sediment]
135
True or False: Hydraulic pingos are formed in continuous permafrost zones.
False
136
True or False: The active layer is the layer that remains frozen year-round.
False
137
What are drumlins primarily made of?
Lodgement till
## Footnote
Drumlins are depositional lowland features formed from lodgement till, which is material left behind by moving glaciers.
138
What is the typical height range of drumlins?
10-50m high
## Footnote
Drumlins vary in size, with heights typically ranging from 10 to 50 meters.
139
What is the typical length range of drumlins?
200 - 2000m long
## Footnote
The length of drumlins can vary significantly, ranging from 200 to 2000 meters.
140
What is the stoss end of a drumlin?
The steeper blunt end
## Footnote
The stoss end is the side of the drumlin that faces the direction of the glacier's advance.
141
What is the elongation ratio used to measure?
The shape of drumlins
## Footnote
A greater elongation ratio indicates a more powerful ice flow that shaped the drumlins.
142
Where do lateral moraines form?
Along the sides of a glacier
## Footnote
Lateral moraines are formed from rock and soil that glaciers scrape off from their sides.
143
What are medial moraines?
Form where two tributary glaciers come together
## Footnote
Medial moraines are generally thin surficial features formed from debris where glaciers converge.
144
What defines a terminal moraine?
Marks the maximum limit of a glacier advance
## Footnote
Terminal moraines are ridges that form at the glacier's terminus, reflecting the ice margin shape at deposition.
145
What are recessional moraines?
Found behind a terminal moraine limit
## Footnote
Recessional moraines form during phases of glacier advance or stillstand that interrupt general glacier retreat.
146
What is the characteristic topography formed by drumlins?
Basket of eggs kind of topography
## Footnote
Drumlins often occur in swarms, creating a unique landscape reminiscent of a basket of eggs.
147
What are hummocky moraines?
Chaotic groups of mounds
## Footnote
Hummocky moraines were once thought to be caused by ice stagnation but are now considered polygenetic.
148
What period do the drumlins in Ennerdale Valley date back to?
Younger Dryas period
## Footnote
The chaotic groups of mounds in Ennerdale Valley were formed during the Younger Dryas period.
149
What is the 'Do Nothing' approach in managing cold environments?
Allows exploitation of environments without significant changes
## Footnote
This approach is often supported by governments, locals, and businesses seeking profit.
150
What does the 'Business as Usual' approach entail?
Continues exploitation while maintaining the status quo with some conservation policies
## Footnote
Example includes areas like ANWR.
151
What is meant by 'Sustainable Exploitation'?
Targets profit from the environment while enforcing mandatory environmental regulations
## Footnote
Example includes waste disposal regulations for cruise ships.
152
What is the aim of 'Sustainable Management'?
Development that benefits all while conserving the environment for future generations
## Footnote
Achieving this is difficult due to varying stakeholder needs.
153
What does 'Comprehensive Conservation' focus on?
Holistic protection and conservation of environments
## Footnote
The specific details of this approach were not provided in the text.
154
Fill in the blank: The approach that allows for exploitation while maintaining some conservation policies is called _______.
[Business as Usual]
155
True or False: Sustainable Management aims to prioritize economic development over environmental concerns.
False
156
List the spectrum of approaches used to manage cold environments.
* Do Nothing
* Business as Usual
* Sustainable Exploitation
* Sustainable Management
* Comprehensive Conservation
157
What is the primary aim of Comprehensive Conservation?
To protect the environment as a wilderness and maintain its pristine value
## Footnote
Allows carefully monitored ecotourism and organic farming; bans exploitative activities like mining.
158
What does Total Protection in conservation allow?
Only scientific research and monitoring
## Footnote
Does not permit access for tourism and is favored by conservationists and some indigenous locals.
159
At what scales do frameworks for protecting glacial areas exist?
International Scale, National Scale, Local Scale
## Footnote
These frameworks help in the protection of glacial areas.
160
What is the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)?
A system of international governance established in 1959 for Antarctica
## Footnote
It is aimed at maintaining peace and science, setting aside claims from seven countries.
161
How many countries have signed the Antarctic Treaty, and what percentage of the world's population do they represent?
60 countries representing 88% of the world's population
## Footnote
This treaty has facilitated over 250 recommendations since its inception.
162
What was the purpose of the 1964 Agreed Measure for the Conservation of Antarctic Flora and Fauna (AMCAFF)?
To conserve Antarctic flora and fauna
## Footnote
It was one of the important changes adopted within the ATS.
163
What does the 1972 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) focus on?
The conservation of Antarctic seals
## Footnote
This is one of the significant treaties under the ATS.
164
What is the focus of the 1982 Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)?
The conservation of marine living resources in Antarctica
## Footnote
It is part of the framework established under the ATS.
165
What is the significance of the 1998 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (EP)?
It enhances environmental protection in Antarctica
## Footnote
This protocol is significant as it aims to safeguard the Antarctic environment.
166
How long has the Antarctic Treaty System been in place?
Over 50 years
## Footnote
It is considered an excellent example of successful international agreement.
167
True or False: The Arctic is currently governed by a system similar to the Antarctic Treaty System.
False
## Footnote
The Arctic is not on the same governance level as the ATS and is surrounded by powerful countries.
168
Why do people visit active polar areas?
Adventure, scientific exploration, cruise ship tourism, and once in a lifetime chance.
## Footnote
The Arctic attracts over 40,000 visitors a year.
169
What has been the growth percentage of tourism in Greenland since 2004?
400%
## Footnote
This significant increase highlights the rising popularity of Arctic tourism.
170
How do Americans typically experience Alaska?
By car or cruise as a rite.
## Footnote
This reflects cultural trends in American tourism.
171
Why does Antarctica tourism remain relatively low key?
Due to remoteness.
## Footnote
The isolation of Antarctica limits visitor access.
172
What activities are common in relict areas?
Walking, climbing, mountain biking, relaxation, fishing, escape, painting.
## Footnote
These activities attract visitors seeking nature and tranquility.
173
What is one approach to manage cold environments?
Do nothing.
## Footnote
This approach suggests no intervention in certain cold environments.
174
What is the Antarctic Treaty System?
Total protection.
## Footnote
It aims to preserve Antarctica for peaceful and scientific purposes.
175
What does 'Business as Usual' refer to in the context of Arctic management?
E.g., Arctic USA under Trump.
## Footnote
This approach indicates a lack of significant changes to environmental policies.
176
What organization is associated with sustainable exploitation in the Arctic?
Arctic Council.
## Footnote
The council focuses on promoting cooperation and sustainable development.
177
What are examples of sustainable management practices?
National Parks, Hohe Tauern, The Alpine Convention.
## Footnote
These practices aim to balance conservation with public enjoyment.
178
What does comprehensive conservation/management refer to?
Kevo.
## Footnote
This indicates a holistic approach to environmental management in specific areas.
