Global Systems and Global Governance Flashcards
1
Q
What is the global village?
A
A modern term suggesting the characteristics of a village are manifested through globalisation.
2
Q
Name an example of the global village.
A
Shopping online globally
3
Q
Who suggested the global village and where?
A
Marshall McLuhan in his book ‘Understanding Media’ (1967)
4
Q
What is cultural imperialism?
A
The fact of the culture of a large and powerful country, organisation etc. having a great influence on another less powerful country.
5
Q
What is Americanisation?
A
The action of making a person or thing American in character or personality.
6
Q
What is KOF index?
A
The KOF Index of Globalization (2011) is a ranking of the most global countries based on three dimensions of globalization: economic globalization, social globalization and political globalization.
7
Q
How is the KOF index calculated?
A
It is on a scale of 1-100. Higher values denote greater globalisation.
8
Q
How does the KOF index analyse economic globalisation?
A
Long distance flow of good, capital and services and information. This can be subdivided into;
Actual flows (e.g FDI and trade as a % of GDP)
Restrictions (e.g tariffs and trade barriers)
Economic globalisation is said to have a 37% weighting.
9
Q
How does the KOF index analyse social globalisation?
A
Expressed as the spread of ideas, images and people. There are sub-indices;
Personal contact (e.g. international telephone calls and tourism)
Information flows (e.g. internet users per 1000 people and trade in newspapers as a % of GDP)
Cultural proximity (e.g. number of McD’s)
Social globalisation is said to have a weighting of 39%
10
Q
How does the KOF index analyse politicial globalisation?
A
The diffusion of government policies. There are sub-indices;
Memberships of international organizations (e.g. united nations)
Number of foreign embassies (e.g Danish Embassy in New Delhi, India)
Participation in international treaties (e.g. the UK agreed to the Baghdad Pact.)
Political globalisation is said to have a weighting of 24%
11
Q
What are some advantages of KOF?
A
Comparable; The index allows comparing degree and changes in globalization over many countries and more than 30 years.
Availability; The KOF Index of Globalization 2009 is available for 158 countries over the period 1970–2006.
Considers many; It is calculated based on 24 variables.
12
Q
What are some disadvantages of KOF?
A
Smaller countries seem to be over-represented at the top of the rankings suggesting there may be some bias in how the final values are calculated. E.g. distances to neighbouring countries are short making it easier to engage in foreign travel (e.g. Belgium), or there are few places to visit at home (Luxembourg).
Trade in books and newspapers is falling in many places due to the rise of e-books and online news sites. Also, in some countries people may access books and newspapers through libraries. This is not reflected in the KOF data.
Internet users is based on people with access to the Internet, but how can this be found accurate (i.e Internet cafes vs home connections).
Trade calculations often ignore the informal economy which can account for a large proportion of actual trade (e.g. Mumbai, India).
Many countries have large numbers of illegal foreign migrants. They are not counted in the KOF.
13
Q
What are some criticisms of KOF?
A
Some countries choose to be neutral and do not participate in UN peacekeeping missions or other international organisations as a result. This does not mean they are less globalized than those that do.
By publishing ranking KOF seem to be implying that those at the top are ‘better’ than those at the bottom. This is not necessarily true as globalisation brings problems as well as benefits to countries.
14
Q
What is the Kearney index?
A
A.T. Kearney seeks to identify emerging trends in the data and illuminate current topics of interest. It can be broken down into 4 categories Economic Integration, Personal Contact, Technological Connectivity, Political Engagement
The Global Cities Index (By AT Kearney) examines the current performance of cities
15
Q
How is the Kearney index calculated?
A
The lowest value is given a 0. The highest is given a 1 and then relative values are given to the ones in between.
FDI, Internet and Telephone Traffic is weighted double
All scores are then summarized
16
Q
How does the Kearney index analyse economic globalisation?
A
Foreign direct investment (FDI) is an investment made by a company or individual in one country in business interests in another country.
e.g. Foreign companies invest directly in fast growing private Indian businesses to take benefits of cheaper wages and changing business environment of India.
17
Q
What is FDI?
A
Foreign direct investment
18
Q
How does the Kearney index measure social globalisation?
A
PERSONAL INCLUDES;
Telephone traffic
Travel
Remittances (an amount of money that you send to someone) and Personal Transfers
TECHNOLOGICAL INCLUDES;
Internet Users
Internet Hosts
Secures Servers
19
Q
How does the Kearney index measure political globalisation?
A
International Organizations (e.g. united nations)
U.N Peacekeeping (UNP helps countries torn by conflict create conditions for lasting peace)
Treaties (e.g. the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1783 between Great Britain on one side and America and its allies on the other)
Government transfers (for e.g. welfare financial aid)
20
Q
What are some advantages of the Kearney index?
A
Coverage;
It covers 96% of worlds GDP
It covers 84% of world’s Population
Comparable;
Allows for comparison between countries
Allows for comparison over time
21
Q
What are some disadvantages of the Kearney index?
A
Only 64 Countries are included in the index- not inclusive
Weightings – who decides? May be subjective
How do you measure cultural trends? Something as complex cannot be reduced to a statistic
22
Q
What are some criticisms of the Kearney index?
A
Smaller countries tend to take the top places in the index due to higher proportion/importance of FDI – therefore suggesting an over importance of the size of the country.
23
Q
In the 2009 KOF index, what was the most globalised country?
A
Belgium, despite not being on top of any of the three dimensions.
24
Q
What is repatriation of profits?
A
TNCs operating in foreign countries will normally send any profits made back to the TNC headquarters. This repatriation of profits is sometimes known as economic leakage.
25
What is capital?
Capital can take many forms but for the purpose of this section we will refer to capital as money.
26
What are remittances?
Money sent home to friends and family by migrants living in a different location (often abroad).
27
What are core areas?
These are economically important and attract investment, capital and people. For the purpose of this section we will consider MEDCs like the US, Canada, Western Europe and Japan to be the core areas.
28
What are periphery areas?
These areas are poorer and may experience exploitation, economic leakage and out migration. For the purpose of this section we will consider LEDCs in Africa, Central Asia and parts of Latin America to be the periphery.
29
What are loans?
Money that is borrowed from someone.
30
What is aid?
To provide support or help. Aid can take many different forms ranging from giving money and loans to providing technology and expertise to providing food and rescue teams.
31
What is debt repayment?
The paying back of money that you have borrowed.
32
What is foreign direct investment?
Investment made by overseas governments, businesses or individuals in foreign enterprises.
33
What are the 4 factors of production?
Land
Labour
Capital
Enterprise
34
What did deregulation result in?
In the age of neo-liberalism it meant that banks and investment firms as well as other financial services could operate outside their own national boundaries.
35
Name a model which shows the dimensions of globalisation.
Wallerstein's core-periphery model of a 'world system'.
From 1974 and it builds on the dependency theory.
36
What is the dependency theory?
Deprived and poor countries are caused by their periphery position in international division of labour.
37
What is a diaspora?
A large group of people with a similar heritage or homeland who have moved or settles in places all over the world.
38
What are BRIC countries?
Brazil
Russia
India
China
Countries with economies which have advanced rapidly since the 1990s.
39
What is economic leakage?
Loss of income from an economic system.
It most usually refers to the profits sent back to their base country by transnational corporations- also known as profit repatriation.
40
What are MINT countries?
An acronym referring to the more recently emerging economies of Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey.
41
In 2018, what was the recorded amount of remittances?
$529 billion
This is three times more than the volume of ODA.
42
What is ODA?
Official Development Assistance
Contributions from richer countries to poorer countries.
43
Name three countries which are a main source of remittances.
USA
Saudi Arabia
UAE
44
Name 4 countries where remittances surpass 25% of total GDP.
Tonga
Kyrgyz Republic (29%)
Tajikistan (46%)
Nepal
45
What is a flaw of circular flow diagrams?
They do not show all flows.
46
What are two benefits of remittances?
They are an effective way of alleviating poverty because they go directly to families.
They present a more stable and steadily rising source of income, unlike FDI which fluctuates and dips significantly during recessions.
47
In 2019, what was the average cost of sending $200?
7% but can be up to 12-15%.
48
What is a UN goal involving remittances?
They want to reduce remittance costs to 3% by 2030 which is a global target under the Sustainable Development Goals.
49
What is containerisation?
Standardisation of transport that uses a common size of steel container to transport goods.
It makes transport easier and cheaper.
50
What has trade liberalisation led to?
Reduced tariffs and duties so as a result transaction costs are reduced so increased international trade.
51
What are services?
Economic activities that are traded without production of material goods.
52
What are high-level services?
Services to businesses such as finance.
53
What are low-level services?
Services t consumers such as call centres.
54
What do flows of information depend on?
Speed of data transfers and migrations.
Live media coverage
Email and internet
Improvements in telephone networks
Digitalisation and satellite technology.
55
Name an example of a flow of information?
In the early 1900s there were morning and evening newspapers to spread information.
56
What does global marketing involve?
Treating the world as one single market and using one market strategy.
Creates economies of scale and global brand awareness.
Will have to be adapted to regional markets as different areas have different cultures and laws.
57
What is trade?
The movement of goods and services from producers to consumers, spanning many sectors of industry.
58
What is comparative advantage?
The ability of an individual or group to carry out a particular economic activity more efficiently than another activity.
59
What can be a basis for specialisation?
Comparative advantage
60
Give an example of a human geography comparative advantage.
Belgium and chocolate
61
Give an example of a physical geography comparative advantage.
Central America and coffee
62
Name five advantages of international trade.
Increased GDP
Increased consumer choice (could be accessing better products)
World peace
Increased wages
Could increase diets
63
Name four disadvantages of international trade.
Worker's may not always benefit
Possibly environmental disadvantages
Deindustrialisation (Redcar Steel, UK)
Peripheral countries (Wallerstein's model) are likely to suffer as the global core countries pay more for products.
64
Where is umbrella city?
Songxia
65
How many umbrella's are made in China?
70%
66
How many models of umbrellas are on Amazon?
Over 5000
67
How many umbrella factories are in Songxia?
1000
68
How many umbrellas are made per person per day in Umbrella City?
300
69
What is Umbrella City an example of?
Comparative advantage
70
Why does Umbrella City have a comparative advantage?
Specialisation
Cheap costs
Access to markets
Umbrella Industrial Park
71
Who came up with the idea of containerisation?
Malcom McLean in 1937
72
What is containerisation an alternative solution to?
Break bulk shipping
73
When did the MSC Napoli crash?
January 2007
The containers fell into the sea
74
How many containers could the MSC Napoil hold?
Up to 4700
75
Where was the MSC Napoli travelling from and to?
Belgium to South Africa
76
How many containers fell overboard off the MSC Napoli?
114 and 80 washed ashore
77
What was found in the containers from the MSC Napoli?
Explosives
Fertiliser
Weedkiller
Car engines
Chocolate
78
What was the main export crop in Senegal by 1960?
Peanuts
Increased productivity due to a comparative advantage
79
Name another country which produced peanuts in Africa.
Mozambique
80
Why did Senegal start earning less from peanuts and what did they do?
Increased production in Africa
Borrowed money from World Bank
81
How did Senegal get into debt?
Borrowing money but peanuts kept decreasing in price.
They had more debt than what was spent on health and education combined.
82
How many peanut farmers in the US?
50000
83
Who is the current largest producer of peanuts?
USA
84
How did the US increase peanut trade?
Giving famers bonuses.
85
What is free trade?
When international trade is left to its natural course without governments imposing tariffs or quotas.
86
Who benefits the most from free trade?
HICs
87
Give an example of the effects of international trade.
18th century indian textiles-
India had a comparative advantage
UK inefficient at textile production
UK put protectionist policies to stop all imports
When UK successful they imposed high tariffs on indian textiles causing them to be undermined
This destoryed the Indian textiles industry.
88
Name an example of war damaging international trade.
Russia/Ukraine with sunflower oil.
89
How many of the poorest countries account for 0.6% of global trade?
49
90
Who are the top 5 exporters.
China
USA
Japan
Germany
UK/Netherlands
91
How many of global trade do the top 5 exporters make up?
37%
92
What are trade blocs?
Associations between different governments that promote and manage trade.
Remove trade barriers
93
Name 5 examples of trade blocs.
European Union (EU)
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
Pacific Islands Forum (PIF)
European Free Trade Association (EFTA)
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
94
Is OPEC regional?
No
95
When was OPEC formed?
1960
96
How many states are members of OPEC?
13
97
How much of the global production of oil and gas does OPEC make up?
44%
98
Which countries are the top three oil producrers?
Saudi Arabia
Iraq
Iran
99
Timeline of the EU.
1956- Formed with 6 members
1973- UK joined
2004- Excession 8 joined
2007- Bulgaria and Romania joined
100
What does the EU involve?
Voting on laws
Countries pay membership fees
EU citizens
101
What is the EEA?
European Economic Area
Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein
Allows free movement.
102
How much of the Earth's surface does the EU cover?
1/3
This is due to French land for example French Guiana
103
What are advantages of trading blocs?
- Tariff removal leads to trade creation and so lower prices for consumers and greater opportunity for exporters.
- Increased trade enables increased specialisation, which gives benefits of economies of scale (lower average costs from increased output).
- Catch-up effects. Countries joining a rich trading block can benefit from inward investment and increased trade opportunities. Countries in Eastern Europe have made considerable progress in catching up with average income levels in Western Europe.
- Gravity theory of trade suggests that trade with countries in close proximity is the most important due to lower transport and similar cultural and economic ties.
- Gives small countries a greater say in global trade agreements
- Increased competition. The removal of tariffs creates greater choice for consumers. Therefore domestic firms have a greater incentive to cut costs to remain competitive.
104
What are disadvantages of trading blocs?
- Joining a customs union may lead to increased import tariffs, which leads to trade diversion. For example, when the UK joined the EEC customs union, it required higher import tariffs on imports from former Commonwealth countries. This led to switch in demand towards higher-cost European countries and caused loss of business for Commonwealth countries
- Increased interdependence on economic performance in other countries in trading block. If Eurozone goes into recession, it will affect all countries in the Eurozone. However, this is almost inevitable even if countries are not formally in a trading block due to a close relationship between trade cycles in different countries.
- Loss of sovereignty and independence. A trading block needs to make decisions for the whole area. This may go counter to the particular wishes of a country.
- Increased influence of multinationals. In a bilateral deal between the US and South-East Asian trading block. Free trade may come at the price of allowing free movement of capital. This can have benefits in terms of inward investment. But, can also have costs for higher-cost domestic producers. Free trade can lead to structural unemployment as resources shift from uncompetitive industries to newer industries.
105
In 2012, name three countires which have a 14:1 income ratio.
Israel, Turkey and US
106
How much of the world's population lives off less than 10 usd per day?
Over 60%
107
What is the Lorenz Curve?
The Lorenz curve shows the distribution of wealth in a country with the x axis showing the population and the % of wealth on the y axis. The further the curve moves from the baseline, represented by the straight diagonal line, the higher the level of inequality.
108
What is the gini coefficient?
A statistical dispersion intended to represent the income or wealth distribution of a nation's residents, and is the most commonly used measure of inequality.
109
What is a commodity?
A raw material or primary agricultural product that can be bought and sold.
110
Who are the top five maize exporters?
USA
Argentina
Brazil
Ukraine
Romania
111
Who are the top five maize importers?
Mexico
Japan
China
Vietnam
South Korea
112
How much of global cereal trade does maize make up?
30%
113
What is the global value of maize?
Nearly 50 billion USD
114
Over the last 2 decade how much has maize trade increased by?
50%
115
Who first domesticated maize?
Mexicans
116
How much of products in a supermarket contain corn in some form?
1/4
117
How does the US protect its maize trade?
Protectionist policies
Subsidises $1.95 per bushel
118
How much has maize production in Asia increased by in the last decade?
35%
119
How does maize production affect the carbon and water cycle?
It releases greenhouse gases
Large water footprint
Driver of land use change
120
What is fairtrade?
Trade between companies in developed nations and producers in developing countries in which fair prices are paid to the producers.
121
What is Traidcraft?
UK based Fairtrade organisation
122
What is cafetrade?
UK based alternative trading organisation for coffee set up by Oxfam.
123
How much more do fairtrade banana plantation workers earn compared to non-fairtrade?
7.5%
124
What is colonialism?
Policy of acquiring full or partial political control over another country, occupying it with sellers and exploiting it economically.
125
What is neocolonialism?
Use of economic, political, cultural or other pressures to control or influence, especially former dependencies.
126
What is China's infrastructure development strategy called?
Belt and Road initiative.
127
Name a continent which is a large trading partner with China.
Africa
128
Name two infrastructure projects in Africa set up by China.
£3.2 billion Kenyan railway project.
£475 billion railway system in Ethiopia.
129
Where was China's first abroad naval base?
Djibouti
130
What is the Belt and Road Initiative?
Chinese government development strategy involving infrastructure development and investment in countries in Europe, Asia and Africa.
131
When was BRI proposed?
2013
132
How much of the world's population does BRI reach?
70%
133
How many of the top 10 global contractors are Chinese?
7
134
What is the 'string of pearls' theory in terms of BRI?
A route of naval bases to protect the maritime silk road.
135
As a result of the BRI how long does it take for trains to get from London and China?
18
136
What is a TNC?
A transnational corporation is an enterprise that is involved with the international production of goods or services, foreign investments, or income and asset management in more than one country.
137
Why might a TNC operate in more than one country?
Land and labour may be cheaper in developing countries (for example Hewlett-Packards in Malaysia)
To reach foreign markets more effectively (for example McDonalds)
To exploit mineral or other resources available in foreign countries (for example BP in Azerbaijan)
To take advantage of foreign exchange rates that make exports cheaper (for example Dyson in Malaysia).
138
Where may a TNCs headquarters be located?
A major city in the home country - many have subsidiary headquarters in each continent.
139
Where may a TNCs production be located?
Where there are unexploited resources and this usually tends to be in developing economies.
140
Where may a TNCs manufacturing be located?
Manufacturing regions of developing nations, especially in South East and South Asia.
141
Where may a TNCs service based operations be located?
Operate either where there are relatively low labour costs balanced with good education or proximity to their markets.
142
What are the benefits of TNCs for the host country?
Generates jobs and income
Brings new technology
Gives workers new skills
Has a multiplier effect
Improved energy and transport infrastructure.
143
What are the benefits of TNCs for the TNCs?
Lower costs because of cheaper land and lower wages
Greater access to new resources and markets
Fewer controls such as environmental legislation.
144
What are the benefits of TNCs for the TNC base?
Cheaper goods
Specialise in management, financial services, R&D and other higher skill occupations.
145
What are the problems of TNCs for the host country?
-
146
What are the problems of TNCs for the TNC?
Poor working conditions
Exploitation of resources
Negative impacts on environment and local culture
Economic leakages/repatriation of profits.
147
What are the problems of TNCs for the TNC base?
Ethical issues such as the image of environment damage or ‘sweatshops’ can be detrimental to their reputation
Social and environmental conscience.
148
What are the problems of TNCs for the TNC base?
Loss of manufacturing jobs
Deindustrialisation
Structural unemployment
Demultiplier effect leads to spiral of decline in former manufacturing areas
Can mean derelict factories, areas of deprivation and poverty.
149
Where are 90% of TNCs based?
MEDCs
150
Why may a TNC choose a country?
Cheap labour
Educated workforce
Access to markets
Natural resource proximity
Economies of scale
Demand and proximity to consumer
151
What are some reasons for division of labour?
More efficent
Increased profit
152
What are horizontal linkages?
Improving links between different firms in the same stage of production.
Based on specialisation, outsourcing and comparative advantage
Relies on other industries to provide its component part.
E.g. car assembly at Renault
153
What are vertical linkages?
Where a company owns or controls all or multiple stages in the production chain.
Can be across international boundaries.
An advantage would be standards control.
154
What is vertical disintegration?
Big brands such as Nike can source products from suppliers rather than directly employing factory workers.
They can 'bypass production'
Can distance from unethical conditions.
155
What is diagonal integration?
An industry makes a component which can be used subsequently in several industries.
Supply TNCs.
156
What are technological linkages?
A product from one industry is used subsequently as a raw material by other industries.
E.g. Cleveland Cables
157
What does the international division of labour show?
Starts to show information about spatial organisation of TNCs.
158
How many countries is coca cola sold in?
Over 200
159
How much does coca cola generate per year?
45 billion USD
160
How many servings of coke have been consumed daily of coca cola?
1.5 billion
161
What is the coca cola system?
Manufacturing system that allows Coca Cola to license to distributors who can incorporate different world markets, sourcers and technologies to maximise revenue.
162
What is a franchise?
When a company grants permission to individuals or groups licensing them to carry out commercial activity under their brand name.
163
Coke's geographical expansion.
They primarily opened bottling facilities in areas such as Guam and Europe.
They then started in areas like Australia and South Africa.
This went smoothly as they chose areas which had good relations with the US and so could easily get trade deals and communicate.
164
Has Coca Cola sponsered the Olympics?
Yes.
165
What was the effect of WW2 on coke sales?
Bottled in 44 countries.
More than 5 billion bottles of coke were consumed by US military service personnel.
Overall it helped sales.
166
What is the second largest drinks company in the world?
Coke
167
Name an example of a coca cola product sold only in one country.
Strawberry coca cola in Japan.
168
What does the coca cola company distribute?
The syrup
169
What are some positive consequences of globalisation?
Increased free rade
Increased global wealth
Easier to do business
Greater global awareness
Multiculturalism
Less global conflict
170
What are some negative consequences of globalisation?
Less manufacturing
Deindustrialisation
Increased inequality
Cultural homogenisation (clone towns such as Exeter)
171
What is a system?
Set of detailed methods, procedures and routines created to carry out a specific activity or duty.
Dominated by Wallerstein's core.
172
What did Lord Robertson say in relation to globalisation?
'Globalisation will make our societies more creative and prosperous, but also more vulnerable'
173
How many TNCs control 28% of food production?
10
173
What is Malthusian theory?
Population increases exponentially
Foods and resources increase arithmetically
Population will outstrip resources
Could lead to large scale food shortages or pandemics
These will decrease the population
174
What are benefits of interdependence?
Increased investment by TNCs
Spread of cultures- Chinatowns
Sustainable development goals
Rise of emerging economies such as BRICS and MINT
Availability of products
175
What are costs of interdependence?
Exploitation of workforce
2008 financial crisis
Profit repatriation
Tax breaks/avoidance
Homogenous food sources at risk of disease- bananas
Increased emissions
Clone towns and homogenisation
176
How has globalisation impacted Nauru?
'fattest place on earth'
95% adults are overweight
import western food
400 miles to the closest island
over 80% land area is strip mined making it hard to grow grops
177
What happened during the 2008 global finanacial crash?
IMF advised economy would grow in 2008
Crash caused by interconnected economics
State subsidies banks- HBOS
Low interest rates which favoured rich as they bought property
ECB stopped european countries going bust for examplke the Greek Eurozone crisis
Increased inequality
178
What is the Malthusian Theory?
Population increases exponentially.
Food and resources increase arithmetically.
Population will outstrip resources.
Could lead to large scale food shortages to reduce population.
179
What is global governance?
Countries of the world coming together to set up institutions, laws etc. on how to tackle issues common to all countries and cannot be dealt with by one particular country.
180
What is a world government?
A single common political authority for all of humanity.
181
When was the CFC ban put into place?
Montreal Protocol- 1987
182
What do CFCs damage?
Ozone layer
183
When is the ozone predicted to fully recover by?
2065
184
What is the tragedy of the commons?
Individual interest over common good.
185
Name five examples of local commons.
Pastures
Woodlands
Fishing grounds
Hunting grounds
Watersheds
186
What are global commons?
Supra-national 'spaces'
187
What are the four global commons and issues associated with them?
High seas- overfishing
Outer space- space junk
Antarctica- Loss of wilderness
Atmosphere- pollution
188
What guides international law?
'Principle of the common heritage of mankind'
189
Who came up with the idea of the tragedy of the commons?
Hardin (1968)
American microbiologist
Controversial figure
'Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all
190
What are institutional frameworks set up to protect commons?
UNCLOS- High Seas
UNFCCC- Atmosphere
ATS- Antarctic
1979 Moon Treaty- Outer Space
191
When was the UN set up?
1945
192
What are the six main organs of the UN?
GA
UNSC
ECOSOC
ICJ
Secretariat
Trusteeship Council (suspended in 1980s)
193
What day is global overshoot day?
28th July
When the world would use up a year's worth of resources by.
194
What does COP stand for?
Conference of Parties
195
Discuss COP 26.
Glasgow
197 countries
India 'phase down' coal proposition- 190 countries signed.
Formalised NDCs
137 countries agreed to reverse and halt forest loss by 2030.
Clydebank declaration- 22 nations.
196
How much of the world's economy has net zero targets?
2/3
197
What was the Rio Summit?
1992
Creation of UNFCCC
Concept of sustainable development as a sustainable goal.
198
What was the Kyoto Protocol?
1997
UNFCCC reduce GHG as it causes global warming
84 signatories
199
What was the Paris Agreement?
2015
Legally binding international treaty.
195 signatories
Global warming below 2 degrees c.
200
What is the Madrid Protocol in terms of the Antarctic?
This was signed in 1991 by 45 nations to be in force until 2048. It banned all mineral exploitation, promotes for minimal human impacts, no removal or interference with flora or fauna and to not introduce non-native species to antarctica.
201
Why is oil exploitation in Antractica unlikely?
Exploitation of oil would be unlikely due to the high price of exporting and mining in Antarctica costing over $100 per barrel while it currently costs $76 per barrel to buy oil currently.
202
What are some known mineral deposits in Antarctica?
Coal (found in the Transantartic mountains and Ross ice shelf), gold (Antarctic peninsula), silver(Antarctic peninsula).
However most of these resources are difficult to get to.
203
What is a treaty involving Antarctica?
Antarctic Treaty 1959.
204
What did the members of the Antarctic treaty try to do involving mining?
In the late 1970’s and early 1980’s members of the treaty secretly tried to make a new mineral treaty that would allow the future exploitation of mineral and gas reserves. This convention was adopted in 1988 but did not come into force as it wasn’t ratified by all members.
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What is a convention in relation to Whaling?
International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (IWC)
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What is International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (IWC)?
Regulates fishing and whaling in 89 member states. It has created catch limits and funds marine research.
207
What is the International Whaling Moratorium and when was it introduced?
1982
Banned commercial whaling in member states. Norway and Iceland are still permitted to whale under the ban.
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What is the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary and when was it established?
1994
Prevents all whaling in the area.
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Why has the IWC been criticised?
Some states have left such as Japan in 2018.
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Why does whaling occur?
Normally of blue and right whales for oil and baleen (used in making clothing.)
Eg. Husvik in South Georgia - whaling station.
In the 20th century it became predominantly for meat.
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When did Whaling start to stop?
1980s as the whale population became dangerously low
212
What is the main exploitation of the Southern Ocean at the moment?
Fishing mainly for Rock Cod and Krill.
Fishing ships further damage marine environments with their noise and water pollution or ship strike.
The overfishing of krill has caused serious knock on effects to other areas of Antarctica's ecosystem, for example it has contributed to loss of Albatross, Penguins and Orca populations.
Krill is an important commercial product as it is rich in Omega-3, it can cost up to £40 for 100 capsules.
213
What is the main exploitation of the Southern Ocean at the moment?
Fishing mainly for Rock Cod and Krill.
Fishing ships further damage marine environments with their noise and water pollution or ship strike.
The overfishing of krill has caused serious knock on effects to other areas of Antarctica's ecosystem, for example it has contributed to loss of Albatross, Penguins and Orca populations.
Krill is an important commercial product as it is rich in Omega-3, it can cost up to £40 for 100 capsules.
214
What is the variation of climate change in Antarctica?
East Antarctic Ice Sheet is thickening - by a 10th of a millimetre each year.
The West Antarctic Ice Sheet is melting - 150 km cubed are lost each year, and glacial ice is more likely to slide into the sea, which could increase global sea levels by up to 5m.
215
What peninsula in the most sensitive to climate change?
The Antarctic Peninsula is the most sensitive to climate change, where temperatures have increased by 0.5 degrees each decade for the last 60 years which is 5x faster than the rest of the world.
216
Since 1955 how much has the temperature of the Southern Ocean increase by? What were the effects of this?
Over 1 degree
Altered the migratory patterns of whales and caused a decline in Antarctic Krill populations
217
What has the role of the WWF been in Antarctica?
Lobbied for a ban on oil spills, in 2011 new regulations came into place that stopped vessels using or carrying heavy fuel oil in Antarctic waters. Spills of lighter-weight fuels could still happen, but it will evaporate and disperse more easily, and pose less danger to wildlife, such as penguins and other seabird colonies.
218
What has the role of ASOC been in Antarctica?
The only environmental NGO invited to observe Antarctic Treaty meetings so works at the highest levels of Antarctic governance to effect change from within. Example of a current campaign would be Antarctic Fisheries where they advocate for sustainable changes to be made to maintain krill populations.
219
How has Antarctica's environment been changed since 1961?
- Almost 90% of glaciers there have retreated
- Air temperatures there have risen nearly 3C since 1951 and sea ice cover around it has dropped 20% since 1979
- Krill numbers had fallen by 80% since the 1970s
- Increase of 0.5 degrees each decade since 1960’s. This is five times faster than the rest of the world in AP.
- The Southern ocean has increased in temperature by 1 degree since 1995
220
What is a positive feedback loop in Antarctica?
Positive feedback loop with melting snow and ice and change in albedo.
221
What is the Madrid protocol and when was it signed?
In 1991, 45 nations signed the Madrid Protocol which acts until 2048 and promotes monitoring on the human impacts on ecosystems, prevents the removal of flora and fauna and the introduction of alien species. It also introduced waste disposal rules and restricted the use of heavy fuels
222
What was the 1987 Montreal Protocol?
In the past the Ozone Hole also was seen to have opened over Antarctica, so the Montreal Protocol of 1987 can also be seen as a mitigative action against the impacts of environmental damage from CFCs, and the Ozone hole is now closing which could result in improvements in Antarctic climate and help reduce further temperature rises.
223
How many tourists did Antarctica see over the 2019-2020 tourist period?
75,000 visitors.
224
How many visitors does the IAATO predict Antarctica will have in the 2022-2023 season?
Exceeding 100,000 with most of these being on cruises.
225
Name two cruises which visit Antarctica?
Celebrity Equinox
Celebrity Eclipse
226
How did scientific research influence Antarctica in terms of Huskies?
Huskies were used to assist the research for transportation and companionship. These dogs were fed seals and penguins when no food was available which brought the threat of infecting seals.
227
How many countries have research bases in Antarctica?
Around 30
228
Name three examples of research stations in Antarctica?
Halley (UK)
McMurdo (US)
Scott Base (NZ)
229
What did the ATS do in terms of tourism?
Visitors must never disturb the Antarctic wildlife, noise and flash photography should be avoided.
All human activities in Antarctica are regulated by the Antarctic Treaty and its associated measures including the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.
230
Why is there no tourism flights to Antarctica?
1979 Mount Erebus crash.
231
What is ATS?
A series of treaties which controls the governance of Antarctica.
232
What are other treaties part of ATS?
Two conventions on conserving Antarctic seals and the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR).
233
How many countries originally signed the ATS?
12
234
How many parties are part of the ATS as of April 2023?
56
235
What has UNEP's involvement with Antarctica been?
The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) was established by international convention on 7 April 1982 with the objective of conserving Antarctic marine life
It currently has 26 members including 10 acceding states.
It has established close working relationships with inter and non governmental organisations such as: ASOC, INTERPOL,CITIES FAO.
Key achievements: maintaining the stock of icefish and krill above the target biomass level, establishing the ROSS region MPA, dramatically reducing seabird mortality.
236
What has the IWC done in Antarctica?
It is a specialised regional fishery management organisation established in 1946.
The moratorium established a ban on all times of commercial whaling from 1985.
Despite this, Japan, Norway and Iceland continue to whale (combined they have killed 38,000 whales since the moratorium was enacted)
2.9million whales were killed in the 20th century
Whales remain under pressure from plastic pollution, noise/chemical pollution as well as marine traffic.
237
When did Japan leave IWC?
2019
238
Where does the ATS apply?
Applies to all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees.
