Global / World English

Question 1

Pidgin

Answer 1

A grammatically simplified form of a language, typically English, Dutch or Portuguese, some elements of which are taken from local languages, used for communication between people not sharing a common language.

Question 2

Creole

Answer 2

A mother tongue formed from the contact of a European language (especially English and French) with local languages (especially African languages spoken by slaves in the West Indies).

Question 3

Acrolect

Answer 3

The variety of speech that is closest to a standard prestige language, especially in an area where a creole is spoken.

Question 4

Basilect

Answer 4

The variety of speech that is most remote to a standard prestige language, especially in an area where a creole is spoken.

Question 5

Derek Bickerton

on acrolect and basilect

Answer 5

“For Derek Bickerton, an acrolect refers to the variety of a creole that has no significant difference from Standard English, often spoken by the most educated speakers; the mesolect has unique grammatical features that distinguish it from Standard English; and the basilect, often spoken by the least educated people of the society, has very significant grammatical difference.

Question 6

Globalisation

Answer 6

The process by which businesses, or other organisations, develop international influence or operate on an international scale.

Question 7

Lingua Franca

Answer 7

A language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native language are different.

Question 8

Code Switching

Answer 8

When speakers who speak two or more different languages switch from one to the other, often in mid conversation. Can also be used to refer to switching between dialects of the same accent.

Question 9

Janet Holmes on code switching

Answer 9

1. Don’t need to be perfect speakers of the second language. ​
2. Can use individual words or phrases to reaffirm or signal their ethnic identity to others, thus creating a sense of solidarity. ​
3. Code switching can be used as a way of performing identity; one person with two languages may have two identities.

Question 10

intrasentential code switching

Answer 10

-switches inside/within sentence/utterances
- typically found in communities where all speakers are fluent in more than one language

Question 11

intersential code switching

Answer 11

one sentence in one language and another sentence in another language

Question 12

Sharma and Sankaran’s investigation of Punjabi speaking Indians in 2011

Answer 12

Sharma and Sankaran’s aim
- to investigate the english of 3 age groups of Punjabi speaking Indians in West London

Sharma and Sankaran’s sample
- 3 age groups of punjabi speaking indians in west london
- oldest group= first generation immigrants who arrived as adults from 1950s onwards
- second and third groups= children of immigrants

Sharma and Sankaran’s findings
- older gen= seemed to vary forms used considerably, 100% Indian when talking to maid to 100% British when talking to Cockney mechanic
- far less variation in younger gen speakers

explaining sharma and sankaran’s findings
- older gen faced more hostile, anti-immigrant community and therefore under more pressure to integrate linguistically
- younger gen in more mixed neighbourhoods but with British Asians in a majority, less need to switch between speech styles to the same extent

Question 13

Linguistic Prestige

Michael Pearce

Answer 13

“Social and linguistic prestige is interrelated,” notes Michael Pearce. “The language of powerful social groups usually carries linguistic prestige; and social prestige is often granted to speakers of prestige languages and varieties.”

Question 14

Covert Prestige

Answer 14

The less obvious or hidden prestige associated with the use of certain non-standard varieties of a language within particular social groups.

Question 15

Overt Prestige

Answer 15

The obvious prestige associated with the use of the standard variety of a language within a particular society. Connected to notions of speaking ‘properly’.

Question 16

Linguistic Prestige ( in terms of overt and covert prestige )

Answer 16

In the case of overt prestige, the social valuation lies in a unified, widely accepted set of social norms, whereas with covert prestige the positive social significance lies in the local culture of social relations. It is, therefore, possible for a socially stigmatized variant in one setting to have covert prestige in another.

Question 17

David Crystal on English as the world’s leading language

Answer 17

1. English was distributed around the world as the language of the British Empire.
2. It was the language of the industrial revolution, technological innovation and western science.
3. It is the language of the USA, the world’s remaining super-power.

Question 18

Kandiah on the spread of English

Answer 18

The reason for the spread of the English Language was colonisation.

Question 19

Kachru’s Circle Model

Answer 19

Braj Kachru’s Circle Model is a sociolinguistic framework that categorizes English into three concentric circles, each representing a different domain of use and proficiency. The model was developed by linguist Braj Kachru to describe the global distribution and functional differentiation of English.

Question 20

Inner Circle

Answer 20

Description: The Inner Circle refers to native English-speaking countries where English is the primary language. This circle includes countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

Use: In the Inner Circle, English is the mother tongue, and it serves as the official language in various domains, including education, government, media, and everyday communication.

Question 21

Outer Circle

Answer 21

Description: The Outer Circle comprises countries where English has a significant historical and institutional presence, and it is often used as a second language. These countries may have a legacy of British colonial rule or historical contact with English-speaking communities.

Use: In the Outer Circle, English functions as a second language and is used in education, administration, and as a means of interethnic communication. English may also have official status alongside other languages.

Question 22

Expanding Circle

Answer 22

Description: The Expanding Circle encompasses countries where English is learned as a foreign language. These countries typically do not have a colonial history with English-speaking nations but recognize the practical importance of English for international communication.

Use: In the Expanding Circle, English is often taught in schools and universities and may be used in specific domains such as business, science, and technology. Proficiency levels vary, and English serves as a global lingua franca in international contexts.

Question 23

Advantages of Kachru’s Circle Model

Answer 23

• The Circle Model is not only geographical but also reflects sociolinguistic and historical factors.
• Kachru’s framework recognizes the diversity of English use and the varying degrees of proficiency and ownership of the language in different parts of the world.
  It challenges the notion that the Inner Circle varieties are the only legitimate or “correct” forms of English and acknowledges the legitimacy of other English varieties.
  The model has been influential in shaping discussions about World Englishes and the globalization of English. It highlights the dynamic and evolving nature of the English language, acknowledging its multiple roles and forms in different sociolinguistic contexts.

Question 24

Canagarajah criticism of Kachru’s circles

Answer 24

Questioned the validity of Kachru’s circles as migration and modern technology have led to the ‘leaking’ of clearly defined circles.

Question 25

Schneider’s Stages

Answer 25

Peter Trudgill, a sociolinguist, introduced the concept of “Schneider’s Stages” in his book “New Zealand English: its Origins and Evolution.” In this framework, Trudgill outlines five stages of historical development for the varieties of English that have emerged around the world. While it’s not directly attributed to Schneider, it’s often associated with Trudgill’s work.

Question 26

stage 1 Foundation

Answer 26

The foundation stage involves the initial settlement of English-speaking populations in new territories. During this stage, colonizers establish contact with indigenous populations and other immigrant groups, leading to the emergence of early varieties of English characterized by linguistic diversity and contact-induced language change.

Question 27

Stage 2 Exonormative Stabilisation

Answer 27

In the second stage, English speakers strive to maintain linguistic ties with the colonial or metropolitan center. This often involves attempts to emulate the linguistic norms and standards of the colonial power, resulting in the adoption of prestigious or standardized varieties of English.

Question 28

Stage 3 Nativisation

Answer 28

Nativization marks the third stage, during which local English varieties begin to diverge from the norms of the colonial center. Speakers adapt and modify English to suit local linguistic, cultural, and social contexts, leading to the emergence of distinct regional or national varieties. Nativization involves processes of linguistic innovation, adaptation, and hybridization, as well as the incorporation of elements from other languages and dialects.

Question 29

Stage 4 Endonormative Stabilisation

Answer 29

Endonormative stabilization occurs in the fourth stage, as local English varieties become more established and standardized within their respective communities. Speakers develop their own linguistic norms and standards, which may diverge from those of the colonial center or other varieties of English. Endonormative stabilization involves the codification and institutionalization of local linguistic features, as well as efforts to promote linguistic pride and identity.

Question 30

stage 5 Differentiation

Answer 30

The fifth and final stage, differentiation, involves the ongoing diversification and specialization of local English varieties. Speakers may continue to innovate and adapt their language in response to internal and external pressures, leading to the development of subvarieties, dialects, and registers within broader linguistic communities. Differentiation reflects the dynamic and evolving nature of language, as well as the diverse sociocultural and historical contexts in which English is spoken around the world.

Question 31

Substratum Theory William Labov

Answer 31

The way that different forms of languages come into contact with English. These create imperfections that is then passed down generationally, in turn, altering language forms. Substratum theory emphasizes the role of the displaced language in influencing the lexicon and grammar of the dominant language after contact. The theory often applies in contexts like colonialism, where indigenous languages have left traces in the colonizers’ languages. Examples of substratum influence can be found in various regions, such as Caribbean English Creoles reflecting West African languages. Substratum theory helps explain why certain linguistic features persist even after a community shifts to a new dominant language. The interplay between substrate and superstrate languages showcases the dynamic nature of language evolution through contact. Substratum theory explains that when one language displaces another due to factors like colonization or conquest, elements from the displaced language can still persist within the new dominant language. This happens because speakers may retain certain vocabulary, grammatical structures, or pronunciation traits from their original language. Over time, these features become integrated into the dominant language, creating a blend that reflects both linguistic heritages.

Question 32

The Wave Model Johnnes Schmidt

Answer 32

the wave model or wave theory is a model of language change in which a new language feature (innovation) or a new combination of language features spreads from its region of origin, affecting a gradually expanding cluster of dialects. The theory was intended as a substitute for the tree model, which did not seem to be able to explain the existence of some features in some languages. by descent from a proto language. The wave theory challenges the family tree theory. The wave theory holds that within the original common language before differentiation, there are dialect differences, and the characteristics of these different dialects will spread to all directions like waves, so that different languages ​​have some of the same characteristics; languages ​​after differentiation Nor do they develop in a vacuum, and they also affect each other.

Question 33

Key features ( AO1 ) of ELF ?

Answer 33

- dropping third person present tense -s - confusion of 'who' and 'which' - omission of definite and indefinite articles, or inserting them where they are not usually used - overusing verbs of high semantic generality ( e.g. 'do' 'have' 'make' - overdoing explicitness ( e.g. 'black colour' ) instead of 'black', 'how long time' instead of 'how long'

Question 34

Criticisms of Kachru model

Answer 34

Implies a weakening/dilution of ‘correctness’ as you move further from the ‘inner circle’ Doesn’t address diversity of Englishes within the circles Aligns with views of the time- newer forms of English were ‘otherised’ and seen as ‘deficient’ Doesn’t address the proficiency of speakers in the outer and expanding circles ‘Inner’ and ‘outer’ suggests a value judgement about ‘better’ usage Canagarajah (2010)- migration and tech have led to the ‘leaking’ of clearly defined circles

Question 35

Positives of McArthur's Wheel Model

Answer 35

Unlike other models, McArthur’s implies an equality between different variations of English: they’re different, but equal.

Question 36

Criticisms of McArthur's Wheel Model

Answer 36

The notion of a ‘World Standard English’ is theoretical at best, as no standard form has emerged to unify the 8 main regions he outlines. Canagarajah (2005) – there is no World Standard English (essentially, there is nothing in the centre).

Question 37

Positives of Steven's World Map

Answer 37

- One of the first attempts to model the spread of English around the world - Clearly illustrates the dominance of English - Separates British and American English and reveals the parts of the world that have been influenced by these two Englishes