globalisation Flashcards

Question

Periphery countries

Answer 1

low level economic productivity, low per capita GDP, low standards of living, Africa (not South Africa), part of S America and Asia- which have been exploited and have suffered from a lack of investment, leakages and out-migration.

Answer 2

is an ownership stake in a foreign company or project made by an investor, company, or government from another country. (via share, merger or joint venture or subsidiary company)

Answer 3

USA- 4626 billion

Answer 4

o TNCs investing in overseas production will normally take any profit made from that investment back to their home-country. This is known as an economic leakage as the income is ‘leaked’ from the country that received the investment. The majority of these flows return to companies based in richer countries

Answer 5

Multilateral (Official development assistance) or bilateral – often comes with conditions - important source of support for poor countries

Answer 6

 Poorer to richer countries  Can exaggerate disparities by sending away skilled labourers who pay taxes and spend earnings in rich country  Yet do pay remittances

Answer 7

These are transfers of money made by foreign workers to family in their home country -India is the top recipient in 2023- $125 billion – update - USA largest source of remittances - Nepal relies on remittances for more than 25% of GDP  Benefits * Stable and increasing as a source of income * Goes directly to families so it alleviates poverty  Disadvantages * High transfer charges. can be as high as 15-18%. SDG goal is to make it 3% by 20230  Beginning to encourage works to invest in diaspora bonds to finance development

Answer 8

- Now difficult to distinguish between core and periphery due to BRICSs and MINTs -The rapid growth of large and medium emerging economies such as the BRIC and, more recently, MINT countries means there is now more of a continuum of development - China now a core country - Most countries’ economies are still dependent on flows of investment to and from other countries.

Answer 9

 BRIC – An acronym used to identify a group of four countries – Brazil, Russia, India and China – whose economies have advanced rapidly since the 1990s. Sometimes South Africa is added to this list so the acronym becomes BRICS

Answer 10

 MINT – An acronym referring to the more recently emerging economies of Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey are all important manufacturing hubs. o Nigeria is additionally a major exporter of oil and also trades globally in low-budget films (the “Nollywood” film industry

Answer 11

 A tiger economy is the economy of a country which undergoes rapid economic growth, usually accompanied by an increase in the standard of living.

Answer 12

Flows of labour are the movement of people who move to work in another country (Migration) This includes specialised workers, for example, who move between different units/ companies of a TNC on a short term basis and unskilled migrant workers using a range of transport modes

Answer 13

- Europe and Asia each hosted around 87 and 86 million international migrants respectively (61% of all international migrants) - 3-4% of the population are international migrants - 14.1% of high income countries made up of international migrants - 1.6% of LIC populations are made up of migrants o Germany and Luxembourg have the largest number of total immigrants and the highest rate of immigration in 2021 in Europe

Answer 14

- Increasing to due increase in transport (high-speed rail; airports and containerisation) - Yet not as free flowing as flows of capital o Restrictions on immigration - Overall trend o S Asia, Africa, Latin America to North America and Europe and Gulf countries o Latin America and Caribbean to North America is the largest flow from one continent to another

Answer 15

Example- Nepal relies on remittances for more than 25% of GDP (in 2014, 16 000 left each month) to gulf/middle east

Answer 16

- Skilled and unskilled – both go to higher-income countries searching for better job prospects - Many countries rely on the flow of highly skilled workers as they utilise their skills – interdependence – e.g. NHS, only 63.4% of the doctors are trained here – many migrated - Unskilled usually work in lower economic-value jobs that reduces the shortage of workers in the UK- but are often unpaid

Answer 17

- Product flows are the movement of produced goods from area of production to area of consumption. - Increased globalisation has caused product flows to become international, meaning products are produced by a country and then transported to another country.

Answer 18

PAST - Manufacturing in HICs due to access to resources (factories) and ability to buy materials and products sold where they were made

Answer 19

- GLOBAL SHIFT - - Now international trade has created major product flows- ¼ of all products are exported , between LICs and HICs - Production now in LICS (better transport and communication) – low labour costs , offshoring- then transported to HICs to be sol - Cause a decline in manufacturing industry in HICs - EMPLOYMENT IN THE MANUFACTURING BUSINESS IN THE UK HAS DECREASED BY OVER 3.4 MILLION JOBS SINCE 1985

Answer 20

Post 2010? - Between 1950 and 2010, world trade grew exponentially, but since 2010 it has decreased and plateaued (despite increasing population) - It was in 2010, when China surpassed US as the largest manufacturing country in the world ( and has been ever since)

Answer 21

Limitations - COVID decreased global trade by 20% and exposed the risks of supply chain

Answer 22

- China is the largest manufacturing country (31.6% share of Global Manufacturing), with the US second (15.87%)

Answer 23

- Product flows are changing due to emerging economies and growing middle class and increasing demand for materials and manufactured prdycts – growing ocnusmerism o E.g. apple shop first opened in China in 2008, now 40 stoes

Answer 24

- Increased due to o Increased demand o Low production costs – mass production and low wage economies – e.g. China and S E Asia o Trade blocs and removal of barriers to trade like tariffs o Reduced transaction costs due to ease of flow of data o Reduced transport costs and increased speed – due to containerisation

Answer 25

1/4 (in 1870- less than 1/10)

Answer 26

- Service is an economic activity without goods - Service industries can flow due to the ability to transfer information in the globalised world. Services can be transferred on phone calls or via the internet, meaning there is no longer a need for the industry to be tied down to a location o E.G. Banking, advertising and insurance demand on flow of information and communication and are able to be located anywhere due to advanced technology which leads to outsourcing - It comes after previous flows are dependent on them

Answer 27

– services to business- finance, investment and advertising (HICS and NEEs in global hubs)

Answer 28

services to consumers- banking, travel , insurance, tourism, customer call centres or comms (offshore in LICs where labour are low)

Answer 29

- Interestingly, Indian call centre workers on average are more qualified than call centre workers in England (many having graduate or postgraduate degrees). However, there is a lack of high level service job opportunity in India for those who possess relevant qualifications - Trends- decentralisation of low level services from developed to developing  E.g. call centres moved from UK to India o India has 20% lower labour costs o This has given India great economic success o India has a large proportion of English speakers so ideal for this

Answer 30

o HSBC- banking o AXA- insurance o WPP group UK- advertising o TUI group Germany – travel and tourism

Answer 31

- Global information flows have grown rapidly since the 90s. - The development of internet use, social media platforms and entertainment services have allowed information to be transferred globally with ease. - Purpose?- The expansion of information helps intensive goods and services and R and D industries such as pharmaceuticals, international law, engineers, computer technology etc.. to flourish o - because it transfers ideas, languages, industrial tech, design and business management support

Answer 32

o Fast Broadband and connections- news and finance info – current events o Social media – experience other cultures, interconnected. o Real-time data and data transfers- contribute to the ‘knowledge economy’ quaternary industry.  Knowledge drives innovation- stock markets, high-tech products, the education sector and many other areas of society o Large databases and archives – used for research and education- seek better employment opportunities- more global connections and allowing online work-from-home jobs

Answer 33

- Marketing involves promoting, advertising and selling

Answer 34

- TNCs either standardise products and marketing (Coca cola) or standardise products but adapt marketing campaigns (Apple) or glocalise (McDonalds) o TNCs view the world as a single market , develop a recognisable brand and employ one marketing strategy and specialise in just one product (don’t adapt it significantly- e.g. Coca Cola only alters size of can due to different regulations, but uses same formula) which leads to economies of scale which reduced costs

Answer 35

o Apple – keep products and bran the same, but alter marketing campaigns – e.g. China they use celebrities to promote product

Answer 36

o McDonalds – ‘Mclocalisation’  Adapt goods and campaigns to the region due to different languages, consumer behaviour and preferences  So no pork in Muslim countries, no beef in Hindu, kosher food in Jewish, McCafe’s in the USA to adapt to the coffee cultures and McRice in Indonesia and Asterix as company logo in France

Answer 37

1954, 95% of production was in the industrialised counties in West Europe, North America and Japan

Answer 38

Over last 40 years , manufacturing has become decentralised from HICs. There has been a global/Asian shift -production moving from HDEs to developing countries in Asia such as China

Answer 39

US- back to HICS?- MAGA campaign . USMCA China is investing in Africa?

Answer 40

Distribution refers to the way something is spread out or arranged over a geographic area- it refers to where products and services are sold globally.

Answer 41

E.G. Primark HQ in Dublin Ireland 300 stores, most in UK and Spain (consumers) Manufactured in China and Bangladesh, they have 928 contracted factories Impact? -2013 building collapsed in Salvor, Bangladesh and 1100 died -Rumours of child labour and very low pay for long hours

Answer 42

developed counties consumed the most , NEEs exported to HDEs

Answer 43

NEES becoming more affluent, have their own middle class so increased internal demand For example, Dyson UK saw a 75% growth in demand for its products in the Asian market in 2017 and just a 1/5 increase in Europe Moved manufacturing to Malaysia in 2002 Moved headquarters to Singapore in 2019 (reflecting increase consumption in Asia)

Answer 44

W Europe, USA , Japan and China will continue being the highest consumers Asia will increase consumption , especially due to Belt and Road initiative Expansion of consumption of financial services in Asia-Pacific – lead to competition between HDEs and NEEs financial corporations

Answer 45

o Lower costs  Due to low land and labour costs  Incentives form governments in the form of tax breaks and special economic zones  Transfer of technology has increased productivity o Due to FDI from TNCs , many emerging economies have developed competitive manufacturing industries o China Open Door Policy 1990s - TNCs also consider when moving o Availability of skilled, educated work force o Opportunity for expansion – new plants etc o No tariff barriers o Available infrastructure such as power supply, roads and ports – will often invest in these if other conditions are favourable

Answer 46

- - Deindustrialization in the HDEs and the subsequent decline in jobs due to lack of investment o In UK manufacturing industry has declined by 60% since the 1970s - Government reactions - Political reactions - International Division of Labour - Emergences of Tiger and BRIC countries

Answer 47

- Started to invest in deindustrialised regions and offered incentives such as tax breaks - Invested in skills and tech to upgrade manufacturing and recently in the UK there has been an increase in technology manufacturing - Put in place protectionist policies ot protect domestic production o Could be counter productive by making these domestic industries less competitive globally

Answer 48

- The decline in standard of living in these deindustrialisation has led to the rise of populist and nationalist movements which were import in the 2016 Brexit vote and the trump election

Answer 49

- The highly skilled, highly paid, decision-making, research and managerial occupation which, on a global scale, are largely concentrated in more developed countries - The unskilled, poorly paid assembly occupations, which are increasingly located in NIC’s, which have lower labour costs

Answer 50

- Many LICs have become NEEs and developed their own industrial and commercial bases and made markest for their own goods and services - This started with the 4 Asian tiger economies (Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Tawain), followed by BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China) - Many TNCS have emrged from these countries , extending their global influence - Thus new cores have been created

Answer 51

1. Information technology revolution 2. 1990s – communist blocs opening up and countries being added to the market economy 3. Deregulation of the Financial markets in the 1980s (neoliberal policies)- Big Bang 1986 – Thatcher

Answer 52

Financial systems - Global financial systems – used by TNCs, consumers, investors, financial institutions and regulated by the IMF . It provides framework for and facilitates the flow of capital - Created after deregulation of financial markets in 1980 (BIG BANG) which made it easier to transfer money abroad Why is it a trigger? - Now financial services and business can access a wider range of financial products and services - Easier for companies to access capital and for investors to diversify portfolio - Began to integrate developing countries into the GFS and this has helped shape international trade - Fewer concerns about exchange rates - Secure online fast payments Disadvantages - Each area supplied by the same company/business – placelessness - Increased financial volatility – interconnected so event in one part of the world has ripple effect – e.g. 2008 financial crisis – US house prices collapsed

Answer 53

However, transport is not the only factor which is responsible for globalisation. The deregulation of the global financial system has also paved a way for globalisation. Deregulation made it easier to move finance across borders, making it easier to trade with and invest in other countries. This allows more sales to occur in more places which can create a sense of ‘placelessness’ in which every area is supplied by the same company/business. The development of the global financial system (GFS) has helped shape international trade. Furthermore, the use of advanced communication/ electronic transmission systems means that transactions can be completed securely with fewer concerns about exchange rates so even more sales can take place.

Answer 54

- Improved transport has increased movement of people and goods and in larger quantities in a smaller amount of time - How? o Integrated air traffic network o Growth of low-cost airlines o High speed rail – HS2 o International airport hubs – Dubai has overtaken Heathrow as world busiest airport o Containerisation – by sea, rail, road, and air o Comms have improved logistic and management o Growth of dry ports in less development countries  Where distances to sea ports are too long so make a dry inland port close to businesses – saves exporter time and transport cost as all shipments arrangement and documentation completed locally before goods shipped to a seaport  E.g. Pakistan – 6 inland dry port that go to Karachi for export o New technologies – larger size of aircraft, - now movements of goods is quicker, TNCs can access to new markets , consumers have a wider range of products to choose o For example, the trade of Coca Cola across the world has led it to become the second most recognised word worldwide, this would never be possible without transport needed to get it into the hands of consumers. - increase tourism as low cost – spreads ideas and closens ties - when transporting products, also transports a new culture and ideas – globalise world Disadvantages - increased spread of diseases – COVID

Answer 55

Transport could be seen as the most important factor of globalisation because it has made the world ever more accessible and vulnerable to spread of ’foreign’ ideas and products. This global transport network allows the movement of people and goods across vast distances. Products and commodities can be shipped more quickly because of containerisation (the use of standardised containers), increased aircraft size, growth of low cost airlines and air freight companies, high speed rail networks and management and distribution efficiencies. Furthermore, the use of dry inland ports provides local hubs of global connectivity. All these factors allow for faster transportation around the globe. This ability to quickly and easily move goods from one country to another has allowed businesses (TNC’s) to access new markets and customers, and it has also made it easier for consumers to access a wide range of products around the world. This not only has a ‘shrinking’ world effect as distant places are now readily accessible, but also causes a flow of information and culture as its products are used by consumers around the world. For example, the trade of Coca Cola across the world has led it to become the second most recognised word worldwide, this would never be possible without transport needed to get it into the hands of consumers. Clearly, transportation is vital in trading products which in turn are important to spreading new cultures and ideas which lead to a more globalised and homogenised world.

Answer 56

Introduction of security systems Problems - over reliance of comes/info systems led to threat of cybersecurity – high profile leaks of sensitive info o average cost of the most severe online security breaches for big corporation in the UK cost £1.5 million - globalisation has led to terrorism threats - due to the world interconnectedness, we need stability or one of the process may come down and others follow (e.g. global energy market collapse, so does financial so doe political) Security systems.. - given countries confidence when expanding. o More security, means more confidence when trading and sending information s, so greater international relations and thus globalisation - gives TNCs economic security

Answer 57

How? - Screen and monitor movements of terrorism by security forces - Growth of counter terrorism agencies - Interpol organises police in different countries to work together to fight transnational crime - Ensure imported products meet required safety standards - Prevent the introduction and spread o harmful organisms /biochemical substance – biosecurity - To secure supply chain , they ensure products are authentic, safe and can travel through borders freely - To ensure economic/trade security – the world custom organization introduced ‘Authorized Economic Operators’ – AEO is awarded to exporters and importers who meet standard criteria - Political security due to Bretton world institutions – such as IMF and WB – they ensure economic security and so political security - UN, EU and NATO promote world security

Answer 58

Closer social ties - Growth of technology (internet, mobile phones, satellite communications 1960s) means information is shared easily with few barriers to sharing data globally - Stats o 5 billion Facebook likes a day o January 2023- 5.16 billion internet users worldwide, 64.4% of population - Technology and comms make distance places seem closer (link to changing places) o responsible for the shrinking world effect/ time space convergence - It has created a global culture/community o Global sense of place- Doreen Massey

Answer 59

Closer economic ties - Helps TNCs, global institutions etc.. o Internet, cloud computing and data analysis has facilitated the collection, storage, and analysis of data, allowing business to make more informed decision and respond quickly to changes in the market - Brings security o Enabled countries to share intelligence and law enforcement information -and work together to counter threats like terrorism and transnational crime - Improve efficiency of transport o Comms needed in transportation industry – logistics and distribution systems - Improves manufacturing industries o Robotic technologies have improved manufacturing operations o Comms regarding design and production of new tech, infrastructure and transport (increased brain power to invent – the inventions then further globalisation) - Global financial systems relies on it o – development of internet and online payment systems – electronic payment replaced cash and checks - Trade blocs o Need comms to run efficiently , members need to communicate

Answer 60

- Easier for terrorists and criminals to move across borders due to deregulation of borders - Spread of misinformation has become a major concern - Most media owned by a few large corporations – concerns over media bias and erosion of diverse viewpoints - Increased potential for cyber attacks

Answer 61

Finally, the advancement of communication could be seen as a more significant factor of globalisation because of its pivotal role in the spreading information across the globe. Information today can now be shared easily and cheaply with a click of a button because there are few barriers to prevent the sharing of information and flow of data globally. There are 5.16 billion internet users worldwide- this quick flow of information clearly has a domino effect in the expansion of the globe and is a factor which the GFS, trade agreements and also transport rely on. For example, communication systems are responsible for the success of the global financial system due to the new age of online payment systems. Without this communication technology the GFS would be far less efficient and globalisation would not increase as rapidly because less trade would occur. Similarly, communications allow information regarding design and production of new technologies, infrastructure and transport to be spread around the world, increasing the brain power to invent new technologies which in turn facilitate globalisation. Finally, communications are also vital in the transportation industry, providing improved logistic and distribution systems of world trade- for example computerised logistic systems have evolved to support supply chain distribution. Trading blocs would also be far less successful and very hard to run efficiently without advanced communication technology that allows members to connect each other instantly. Evidently, communications are vital in ‘shrinking’ effect of the world, perhaps more important than the physical transport infrastructure itself.

Answer 62

- Better management and distribution of transport has reduced transport times - Increased number of economies scale/ growth of supply chain means there is high volume production, management is needed to ensure that sales keep in pace with increased production o For example, companies may use enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems to track and manage inventory, orders and production in real time o Or customer relationship management – tack and mage customer interactions and data - JIT- just in time systems – boost efficiency of supply chain o It ensures the correct quantities of materials, components and assembled good are available on time, in the right location at each stage of production o This reduces cost by have fewer goods and material in stock o So principle is that production pulled through by customer orders, rather than pushed through to build up stock o Lower cost means more trade so more globalisation Managing chains can be done remote which has been enabled by information systems which bring telecommunications and video conference, integrated ICT management systems These management systems also boost globalisation by allowing - High order business actives (R and D, design and engineers, marketing and advertising) based at headquarters and strategic hubs - Lower order activities (production and assembly) at low production cost location or near to large markets for finished goods MIS led to growth of logistics and distribution industry Disadvantages - Increase MIS like JIT has made supply chains vulnerable to disruption – COVID – shortage of goods - Need to ensure data security and privacy

Answer 63

General Economic Cooperation- More loose knit and contains members with an interest in cooperation and development of trade, but no formal trade agreement APEC Preferential trade Areas- When countries within a geographical region agree to reduce and or eliminate tariff barriers on selected goods imported from other members of the area Free Trade Area Eliminates internal barriers but each member maintains independent external barriers ASEAN Customs Union Eliminates internal barriers , one common external barrier This means members negotiate as a single block within third parties CARICOM Common Market The same as a customs union, but with free movement of goods, services, capital and labour without any restrictions -for a common market to be successful there must also be a significant level of harmonisation of micro economic policies and common rules regarding monopoly power and other anti-competitive practises - there may also be common policies affecting key industries such as the common agricultural policy cap and common fisheries policy CFP of the European single market ESM EU single market Economic/ Monetary Union Operate as a common market with the additional integration of a common tax system or currency EU Eurozone

Answer 64

- Denmark is a member of EU single market but not the Eurozone - Subgroups of larger groups – e.g. UEMOA in West Africa a subgroup of ECOWAS

Answer 65

- Not all trade agreements are regionally based o E.g. OPEC is made up of mainly Middle East countries but also S America and S Africa o E.g. EU and Japan- Feb 209 – economic partnership- removes tariffs to encourage trade o Transpacific Partnership

Answer 66

- Improve global peace and security, reduce conflict o E.g. NAFTA – head of states met more regularly - Increase global trade and economic cooperation. - Encourage socioeconomic development in middle and lower income countries

Answer 67

- Economic migrants and remittances due to free movement of labour ( fill shortage of workers) - Members are encouraged to specialise , knowing they have free access to each other’s markets, this allows comparative advantage - Trade creation- increase in production and trade (high cost domestic porducers replaced by lower and more efficient porducers) o E.g. NAFTA- trade quadrupled - Domestic industries protected from cheap imports – e.g. EU shoe industry from cheap imports from China and Vietnam - Creates economies of scale – mass production for a large market reduces average cost of production o E.g. NAFTA- manufacturing grew in the US- create d5 million jobs and increased economic output – helped them compete with Asian tigers - International status o Can compete on a global level with other trading groups/ greater economic leverage in negotiations  NAFTA- more competitive bidding for government contracts reduced costs o Attracts local and FDI because of a larger market size  E.g. NAFTA- FDI more than tripled. Mexico especially – TNCs produced there to gain access to markets (US and Canada)- maquiladoras o Greater representation in world affairs - Faster transfer of technology - Employment - In monetary unions – common currency prevents exchange rate fluctuations and simplifies transactions - Provide support for certain sectors (Agriculture in the EU) or regions – e.g. declining industrial regions (EU Regional Fund) - Raise standards of living (healthcare and education) - Promotes democracy and human rights - Regional cooperation in emergencies – pooling resources in response to natural disaster, terrorism threats, pandemics - The advantages of largest of the largest trade blocs are increased further as any similar trade agreement with LDEs are weaker and achieve limited advantages

Answer 68

- Restrict the development of a global economy. - Offer unfair advantages to members - Blocs distort world trade and reduce the benefits of specialisation and comparative advantage - Inefficient producer within the bloc protected from more efficient ones on the outside o E.g. European farmers protected o This creates trade diversion when trade is diverted away from efficient producers- forced to buy form within the group at artificially low prices - Leads to trade disputes o Recent Boeing US/Airbus EU dispute – research o US and EU have a long history of trade disputes  US Steel tariffs declared illegal by WTO in 2005  US applied 60 million tariffs on EU beef in response to EU ban on US hormone treated beef - Loss of sovereignty o Decisions become centralised at a supra national level – for example, in the EU, the loss of freedom to negotiate separate trade agreements o Pressure to adopt central legislation  E.g. European Court of Justice has ultimate legal power on issues like human rights  Some say that it is less democratic and more bureaucratic o Loss of financial control – especially those in a monetary union –  E.g. UEMOA has to adopt a overvalued common currency which damages exports - Freedom of movement of labour increases competition for work and can depress workers wages- may cause unemployment o E.g. NAFTA – job migration suppressed wages in US factories . Jobs stolen by cheap labour. - Increased interdependence can mean that some members of the group become overly dependent on others - Over exploitation of shared resources- e.g. UK sharing its traditional fishing grounds with other EU nations, such as Spain and France - Contributes to environmental problems- air pollution and CC o E.g. NAFTA  US and Canadian mining companies degraded the Mexican environments – taking advantage of its natural resources and lax pollution laws - Loss of blue collar jobs in the most developed country in the block as manufacturer relocated to lower costs countries (e.g. Mexican maquiladora plants near the border)

Answer 69

- During 2018- Trump renegotiated NAFTA, ratified in 2020 - Trumps goal was to reduce size of the US trade deficit that had built up with both Mexico and Canda

Answer 70

- 2016 referendum – 17.4 m to 16.1 m – OUT - Left on the 31st January 202 , then entered transition period with the EU

Answer 71

- Major economic crisis in 2015- 4 billion euros in debt, and almost left the EU - Stemmed from overspending on an inefficient public sector, combined with the 2088 financial crisis. - Bailouts from IMF and EU - Also struggling with a migrant influx in 2015 - GREXIT o Economy autonomy o Trade flexibility, regional trading opportunities - REMAIN o Staying provided stability , access to European free markets and eased import reliance

Answer 72

Interdependence – each country depends on others and so what happens in one place will increasingly have impacts on others

Answer 73

social, economic and political impacts) ‘When America sneezes we’ll catch a cold’ - USA is a major economy that uses global systems to drive home its advantages over the rest of the world- unequal relationship - Other countries where resources are more limited may only be able to respond to global events in a more limited way (recipients of change) Economic - Trade – countries rely on other countries to supply their needs and also to buy their exported products. o Dangers- e.g. Russia’s policies on gas supply affects energy costs in Europe - Tech o Competing (or cooperating) with foreign business may bring new innovation , which can increase quality of products and services and make them affordable for consumers - Employment- jobs lost in one place and gained in another o For example, a UK manufacturing company might relocate to Malaysia, where they hire more workers at lower cost- more jobs in Malaysia, job losses in the UK - International economic migration o 2019- migrants accounted for more than 20% of the total population in 48 countries o 20% of the UAE workforce are from the Philippines o Provides much needed workers in some sectors of the economy, and the Philippines relies on remittances sent back - TNCs and investment o Work across countries, interdependence between HIC and LIC. LICs rely on HICs for investment and HICs on LICs for the goods o May form joint ventures with local companies - Supply Chains o Different components span across many countries before being assembled - Industrialisation o Industrialisation is some places (BRICS) and is some places deindustrialisation and structural unemployment

Answer 74

Political - Countries rely on one another in intergovernmental organisations o Provide stability, dialogue and consensus among nations o IMF, WB facilitate capital flows o WTO overseas trade o UN - Work together on common goals (e.g. COPs) - Some argue that wars won’t happen because of interdependence o Thomas Friedman 1999- ‘Golden Arches’ Theory where no 2 countries that both had McDonalds had fought each other since each got its McDonalds because their economies and cultures are so interlinked o Disproved several times since

Answer 75

Social - Health – WHO took the lead in combating COVID- national governments relied on this advice - Education o Foreign exchange programmes (such as Erasmus on the EU) o Study Abroad years – beneficial for students and institutions involved - Cultural o Migration – stronger social ties – for example – large Indian diaspora settle din the UK deepened its relationship with India

Answer 76

- Global climate change – international summits , UNFCCC and UNEP – encourage all nations to work towards the shared goals of CC mitigation and biodiversity protection - Global Commons- interdependent in sharing resources (oceans and atmosphere) – governed by the same international legislation - Unsustainable practices – challenge environmental interdependence o E.g. air pollution, acid rain deposition and deforestation (may happen in Amazon or S E Asia but impacts on a global scale may be irreversible)

Answer 77

Promote stability, growth and development For developed countries - Reduced unemployment – addresses important skill and labour shortage in places (e.g. NHS) - Migrant workers increase workforce, pay taxes, spend money – promote growth and reduces dependency in HDEs with ageing populations For less developed countries - Reduces some inequality as foreign workers earn higher wages in HDEs - Remittances sent back to developing countries provide stability and opportunity for growth - Workers return to their country of origin equipped with new skills and ideas - Reduce population pressure on resources, such as food and water, and services, e.g. Healthcare, in developing countries

Answer 78

Cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices For developed countries - Migrants and their families put pressure on health and education services in HDEs – and may be treated differently in the systems (inequality) - If only workers are allowed to settle, families may be separated – which is unjust - Migrants may be segregated formally or informally into certain areas - Resentment towards migrants – ethnic and cultural conflict - Some states , like Qatar and Singapore, depend on migrant labour for their prosperity - Outsourcing of production, causes unemployment For developing countries - Lose younger, more talented workers attracted by higher wages – brain drain reinforces inequality and dependency o Loss of these workers impacts on productivity , growth and development - Overdependent on remittances - Unfair working conditions – exploitation – e.g. 1400 dead in Qatar in World Cup Fifa

Answer 79

Promote stability, growth and development For developed countries - Profits from outsourcing or nearshoring or offshoring - Stability from increased trade as trade encourages cooperation - Economic growth – multiplier effect - Increase in HDI For developing countries - Remittances – important source of income - Borrow from the WB to fund projects (e.g. improving transport connectivity or for health and education programmes)- this can increase standards, access and inclusion o Loans have to be paid back and this can only be done if the money has been invested effectively, which is more difficult if the loan is used for social rather than economic development projects - FDI from TNCs or governments in Europe, Japan and the US raised average incomes and reduced poverty o It is thought that over 1 billion people have escaped poverty in Asia for the last 30 years o Stability from increased trade as trade encourages cooperation o Economic growth – multiplier effect o Increase HDI  Danger- this can create a dependency - Foreign aid will help low income countries in times of need

Answer 80

For developed countries - Deindustrialisation – loss of jobs - Disputes over tariffs/ trade wars (unequal flow)- see earlier – US vs EU For developing countries - Workers dependent on higher wages may be subject to poorer working conditions - Can become dependent on FDI from developed countries - TNCs may pressure host governments to alleviate taxes or relax social and environmental laws - Loss of profits – repatriation of profits by TNCs to their home country undermine benefits gained from investment in developing countries o There may be limited ‘trickle-down’ from the FDI into the developing economy and this may exacerbate global inequalities in wealth. - Foreign aid can reduced incentives for governments to help their own countries - Increased internal inequalities – Gini Index - TNCs employ skilled workers and pay higher wages (40% higher than local firms) - Low wages, modern slavery, child labour- poor working conditions

Answer 81

EXAMPLE – NIGERIA Promote stability, growth and development - oil reserves of around 36 billion barrels and natural gas reserves of over 2800 billion cubic metres - a single product economy- oil and gas account for more than 80% of its national income - member of OPEC o this aided its economic growth but it led to a dramatic decline in the traditional industries of agricultural manufacturing Cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices - rural to urban migration increased – rural poverty and overcrowding in cities such as Lagos and Abuja - foreign oil companies develop its reserves as Nigeria does not have the tech or the skills – scant regard for local environment and the indigenous people - oil spills are commonplace in Niger Delta and land rights of local people have been abused - DUTCH DISEASE- the high income that is generated from oil result sin the Nigerian currency being significantly overvalue making imported consumer goods cheap – which makes domestic goods too expensive and unable to be exported – leads to deindustrialised which again makes Nigeria less internationally competitive and increased its reliance on imports (positive feedback)

Answer 82

Unequal flows of ideas Ideas generally flow from wealthier HDEs to developing countries that want to emulate the success enjoyed by richer nations. Many of these ideas are associated with global capitalism. Promote stability, growth and development - Privatization: Dismantling state ownership of corporations can benefit consumers in LDEs by lowering prices - Deregulation: Reducing government regulation and intervention can encourage enterprise (growth and development) - Free Trade: Free trade allows global markets to develop and thrive and may help some LDEs to attract investment - Multi-culturalism: multi-culturalism enables developing countries to integrate into the global economy and to access markets

Answer 83

- Privatisation: Profits are retained (rather than re-invested as is the case for nationalised industries), causing greater inequality and potentially inhibiting economic growth - Deregulation: Deregulation can lead to more relaxed social and environmental laws in LDEs, causing social injustices and environmental degradation - Free trade: Free trade may not always be beneficial to some LDEs; they may be disadvantaged. o LDE (infant) domestic industries may be outcompeted by free trade so some protection may be needed - Multi-culturalism: Citizens may see it as a dilution of their culture and even a threat to their national sovereignty and identity

Answer 84

Unequal flows of technology Promote stability, growth and development - Access to mobile and internet services is transforming people’s lives in less developed countries o E.g. UGANDA VILLAGE PHONE  Microfinance project supported by the WB  Loans for smartphone that link to an improving network of telephone masks  Enables access to internet in remote rural area – improving quality of life  Enables small business, based on information provision, to be established, for example, providing information to local farmer on prices - Transfer of labour-saving technologies from HDEs to developing countries can promote growth - Can support education

Answer 85

Cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices - Access to technology is limited as unaffordable to many – unjust given the assembly of product in often based in developing countries (they receive very low wages compared to selling price of the goods) - Labour saving technology can put people out of work, leading to high employment and poverty o Occurred in agriculture and textile industries - China limits access to the internet with its firewall – censorship and via fines, arrests, lawsuits etc…- unjust - Only 30% of Sub Saharan have access to the Internet, 91.52% North America - South Sudan – 7% internet access

Answer 86

UGANDA – unequal flows of people, money, ideas and technology Promote stability, growth and development - Mobile phones o farmers pay access to the internet to gain information about the price they might pay for seeds at market or information on new farming techniques Cause inequalities, conflicts and injustices - Part of the British empire – IEAC strongly influenced the country’s exports o Low value products – cash crops of coffee , tea and cotton dominate Uganda still today o Unsustainable fishing industry introduced by the British – near extinction – fish factories have closed – knock on effects of the economy

Answer 87

- Indicators suggest that globalisation is reducing global inequality through the transfer of capital and income from richer to poorer economies. o The development continuum is becoming more condensed - Paradoxically, o The Gini index/ Lorenz Curve indicates that, over the past 25 years, income inequality has increased within most developing countries, suggesting that globalisation has had a negative effect on income distribution. o for example, South Africa has one of the highest scores with 0.63. o Why?  TNCs employ skilled workers and pay higher wages (40% higher than local firms) - An increase in inequality also applies within highly developed economies. Many countries, including the UK, Canada and even traditionally egalitarian Sweden, have seen a rise in income inequality.

Answer 88

- Wealthier developed countries wield more power , enabling them to steer global system to their advantages o How?  Have more wealth, advanced tech, military power to use on a global scale  Provide aid , investment and transfers of tech and medical knowledge to developing countries in return for geopolitical support  Wealthier countries work together and have close relations – G7,G20 and OECD- use these intergovernmental economic groups to be more influential in driving global economic and political systems – Security Council UN – allies  More influence in global governances (in the UN, IMF, WB, WTO)- due to post WW2 nature of the organisations * This can provide stability and development but also powerful nations whose vested interest can use their influence to heir own advantage - Stats- OECD- Today, OECD member countries account for three-fifths of world GDP, three-quarters of world trade, over 90 percent of global official development assistance, half of the world’s energy consumption, and 18 percent of the world’s population Unable to respond or resist - Less influence or power to intervene so depend on decisions made on wealthier countries – constrained in the way they respond to geopolitical issue- need support from allies

Answer 89

Climate change HICs ‘Drive global systems to their own advantage - contribute most to emissions - US pulled out of Paris Agreement LICs-‘unable to respond or resist’ - Impacted the most by CC yet contribute little

Answer 90

China expansive foreign policy - 2 foreign polices to expand its wealth and influence (investment in Africa and the ‘Belt and Road’ initiative Example – Investment in Africa - Increased demand for metal, frontiers of metal exploitation have shifted from north to South – particularly apparent in Africa Drive global systems to their own advantage - Wants to extract raw materials to support industrial expansion in China o To do this, trying to gain political support and stability by investing in poorer African countries to develop housing, healthcare and education - China has invested in Africa, created new trade routes – political implication of increased African Asia cooperation o Investments  Joint venture with Ethiopia to build the Grand Renaissance Dam to provide HEP  Develop port Mombasa in Kenya – road and bridge link to Nairobi and to South Sudan oil field ($14 billion)  Modernise Benguela railway – linking DRC to Anglolan port of Lobito o Nearly 1.5 million Chinese now live in Africa Unable to respond or resist - China argues there are no strings attached for this development but critics point to the unfulfilled Chinese promises of development assistances, flooding of cheap Chinese manufactured goods into African local markets, and its working practises are unsafe an unethical - E.g. 2011, Collum Coal Mine, Zambia – Chinese operation managers shot 11 African workers for protesting against poor working conditions o Following year, a Chinese manager killed during a pay dispute o Year later the Zambian government seized the mine

Answer 91

Drive global systems to their own advantage - Belt and Road o Launched in 2013 to boost trade across Asia into Europe and Africa – ‘modern silk road’- ‘chinese marshall plan’ o Overland routes (belts) and maritime (roads) o Includes 71 countries (account for half the world’s population and a quarter of global GDP) o $1 trillion o China- Pakistan corridor - $46 million - gives China direct access to imported commodities from Africa and oil from Iran Unable to respond or resist (constrained) - Concerns it is a form of economic imperialism, giving China too much leverage over other countries - BRI o In the BRI, China will except some repayment from the countries from which it is investing – poorer countries, especially those in central Asia, will not be able to afford to repay these debts  The affected nations – Djibouti, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, the Maldives, Mongolia, Montenegro, Pakistan and Tajikistan – are among the poorest in their respective regions and will owe more than half of all their foreign debt to China.  Critics worry China could use “debt-trap diplomacy” to extract strategic concessions – such as over territorial disputes in the South China Sea or silence on human rights violations.  E.g In 2011, China wrote off an undisclosed debt owed by Tajikistan in exchange for 1,158 sq km (447 sq miles) of disputed territory. o China’s dominance comes at the expense of local contractors in partner countries o Also government risks (corruption and procurement), stranded infrastructure, environmental and social risks

Answer 92

Example - China vs Europe, US and Mexico Drive global systems to their own advantage - Steel dumped during the Chinese construction boom faltered in 2015 when demand for steel in the country fell and tried to sell it to the international market instead o Chinese steel is state subsidized and made its price very competitive - G20 argued too competitive o Sold even below cost to produce it Unable to respond or resist - Steel plant closures across Europe, US and Mexico - Tata Steel, UK, 2016 o UK nearly in conflict with China , but UK needed Chinese investment in 18 billion nuclear plant, Hinkley Point EU did respond by imposing anti dumping duties for six months on selected steel imports from China and Taiwan (but in a constrained way)

Answer 93

- Conflicts may be based on resource shortages, strategic territorial claims, exploration rights, supporting political allies or minority groups within countries o E.g. For example, the US permanent position on the UN Security Council may have shielded Israel from wider UN criticism for policies disadvantaging Palestinians. (able to influence geopolitical events)

Answer 94

Russia annexation of Crimea 2014 Background - Crimea was once part of Russia before USSR, ceded to Ukraine during the soviet era - Russia continued to use Sevastopol (warm water naval port- ice free all year round) on Crimea’s black sea coast - 2014- revolution in Ukraine (large Russian population) when the ‘Euromaidan’ political movement demanded closer ties with the EU and eventually overthrew the pro-Russian government o Geopolitical shift to the west, prompted Russia to take action Directly influence geopolitical events - Putin took military control of Crimean Peninsula, strengthen its Black Sea Fleet and supported Russian separatist groups in eastern Ukraine o The Crimean Supreme Council had voted to accede to Russia – gave some authority to Russian claim Unable to respond or resist (constrained) - 114 UN member states do not recognise the annexation , 17 pro Russian states do - Ukraine lacks the leverage to restore sovereignty over Crimea- not a member of EU or NATO - so had no military assistance from the west - G8 membership suspended- became G7 - EU and USA imposed trade sanctions - Yet, EU constrained as it was dependant on Russia for energy supplies – link to 2022 invasion - US increased its maritime presence in the Black Sea, along with NATO partners

Answer 95

China Directly influence geopolitical events - In the BRI China claims sovereignty of the South China Sea and the energy supplies beneath it - The south China sea lies in international water and so many other countries countries including Malaysia, Philippines, Brunei and Vietnam also have territorial claims as well as fishing rights. - Last year, China established its first overseas military base in Djibouti - Reclaiming several reefs and atolls in the Spratly’s - Creating a protective circle of land around China Unable to respond or resist - These countries are all ASEAN members, but China prefers to negotiate on an individual basis, which restricts members’ ability to respond. - US SofS Mike Pompeo declared the claims unlawful

Answer 96

- A barrier to trade is a government-imposed restraint on the flow of international goods and services. The most common barrier to trade is a tariff- a tax on imports. Although free trade has eroded the practice of protectionism, it is still a strategy used by governments in both developed and developing countries to protect their established or emerging industries. - There are a number of other barriers to trade, which are used as either protectionist strategies or sometimes as a means to affect diplomatic relations (communication and relationships between different governments).

Answer 97

Since no single country has everything it needs- trade is vital - End of 20th century – emergence of free market ideals which removed existing barriers to trade - As production became more mobile (transfer of tech etc..), regional trade agreements emerged and the global trade framework was strengthen by the WTO o WTO oversees 97% of world trade and provides a forum for negotiation , enforce trade agreements are followed (regulatory bodies is needed because without some countries would resist some foreign imports whilst possibly favouring others)  V complex, 26000 pages o It aims to cut trade barriers , ensure trade flows as freely as possible o Called in to settle disputes between countries with trade agreements - Since the financial crisis 2008 , multilateral trade agreements on a global scale have been difficult to achieve - International trade fluctuates o During recessions it stalls, during COVID, it fell massively

Answer 98

Type Explanation Import license Issued by the national government and authorise the importation of goods from a specific source An import quota Sets a physical limit on the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country in a given period of time - Quotas reduce imports to help domestic suppliers - But lead to higher prices for consumers, a decline in economic welfare and can lead to retaliation from other countries Subsides Grants or allowances awarded to domestic producers to make them more competitive against imported goods Sanctions These are restrictions on exports implemented for political reasons by countries and international organisations to maintain international peace and security Embargoes These involve the partial or complete prohibition of commerce and trade with a particular country. They are usually put into practice for political rather than commercial reason Regulatory or technical restrictions These are restrictions placed on imports based on obstacles such as the quality standards of goods or how they are produced. For example, the EU attempts to put restrictions on the import of goods knowingly produced using child labour.

Answer 99

- Value of world trade in 2022- $24.9 trillion (6.45 trillion in 2000) - The value of world trade and global GDP has risen by around 2 per cent annually since 1945- with the exception of 2008-2009 when the Global Financial Crisis – GFC- led to a brief fall in activity - China is now the world’s largest trader, surpassing the US in total trade value in 2018 - Just 10 nations- including China, USA, Germany and Japan- account for more than half of all global trade - the G7 countries account for 75% of world trade - Volume of trade massively decreased during COVID and it is taking a long time to recover

Answer 100

- Changed as a result of greater integration of economies which increased the complexity of global supply chains for many manufactured products o Car components made in all parts of the world and then imported to an assembly plant - Factors affecting current pattern o Comparative advantage - countries specialise in producing and exporting goods that they can produce more efficiently at a lower cost o Proximity- countries more likely to trade with their neighbours – reduces transport cost, but also for cultural, historic or linguistic reasons  This is why trade is often organised on a regional basis and intra-regional trade dominates the global pattern o Agglomeration – some industries tend to cluster in geographical areas as sharing of regional skills and specialist info saves costs o Market size and strength – exporters drawn to larger, more affluent and growing markets – where there is a potential to increase volume and value of sales o Geopolitical relationship - political alliances are important in determining which countries co-operate and trade with each other; conversely, conflict may lead to sanctions or embargoes. (e.g. sanctions on Russia

Answer 101

Current Pattern - Intra-regional trade is particularly strong within Europe and within the Asia-Pacific region; it is also strong in North America but to a lesser extent. - Inter-regional trade is increasing between the AsiaPacific region, Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. - In Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa, there is less intra-regional trade as most trade involves imports and exports coming into or going out of these regions. - Latin America has the strongest trade flows with North America, though trade with Europe and AsiaPacific is also good; it has an overall trade surplus with North America and Europe but a deficit with the Asia-Pacific region. - North America (mainly USA) has a trade deficit with all other regions whereas Asia-Pacific has a surplus flow of trade with all the other regions.

Answer 102

Volume - $8.9 billion 2023 (drop from $9.5 billion in 2022) Pattern - Factors affecting pattern / attract investment o Manufacturing industries - for example, foreign motor companies investing in the USA and UK or offshoring and outsourcing investment in China and India  OUTSOURCING- obtaining a key product form alternative, ceaper location  NEARSOURCING- more tnc's opting strategically to use suppliers closer to home due to the risk and costs of the supply chain disruption incurred by natural hazards such as the Japanese Tsunami of 2011, Covid -19 and conflicts in North Africa and the Middle East. o Investment in the form of mergers and acquisitions  2010- UK Cadbury taken over by US food giant Kraft- acquisition  Currys and PC worlds- merger o natural resource development – investment from mining corporations, for example, in Brazil, Congo, Guyana and Mongolia o financial business services – attract investment in Singapore and Hong Kong o large and accessible consumer markets – attract both manufacturers and service providers, for example, the EU is a single market of 500 million people o lower business taxes – attract investment to Ireland and Cyprus, which have relatively low taxes and are also part of the large EU market; this also demonstrates that in some cases it is a combination of factors that attracts foreign investment o Where labour and land cost are lowest o Relaxed administrative regulations o Invest more if in shared membership of regional trade blocs and agreements

Answer 103

- In 2019 UNCTAD report o Developing countries receive almost twice as much FDI as they initiate. o FDI from North America has slumped. o The Asia-Pacific region accounts for 40 per cent of FDI inflows. o Eight of the top 20 recipients of FDI were developing economies. o The largest FDI investors were Japan, China and France. o FDI flows to developed countries as a whole drop by 14% compared to 2013 mirroring the small but significant shifting world trade from HDEs to LDEs - 2023 o Top recipients – US, Ireland, Canda and Brazil o Top sources- US, Japan and China

Answer 104

- Traditionally a protectionist economy , lagged behind in making formal trade agreement - Under Obama- TTP was negotiated and the TTIP - Under Trump – reversed Obama strategy of opening up to multilateral trade agreements o Withdrew the US from TTP negotiation with Pacific countries o TTIP negotiations collapsed in 2016, US demand for access to EU market wasn’t accepted . Declared closed by the EU in 2019 o NAFTA was negotiated to USMCA o Trump aimed to form bilateral trade deals – The US has 20 separate free trade agreements, including some of the TPP countries , others in central America or middle east , and south Korea - Under Biden? o Launched a trade deal with 12 indo-pacific nations- IPEF  Fair and resilient trade, supply train resilience, infrastructure, clean energy, decarbonisation, tax and anti- corruption o Nov 2023- US halted plans for the IPEFs trade component – due to opposition from democratic members of congress

Answer 105

- As a customs union – it is protectionist- external common barrier - 65% of trade in the EU is intra-regional - Agreements with Australia, NZ, Mexico, Japan, Singapore, Vietnam - Canada- EU deal (2017) - Mercosur and EU agreed a trade deal in 2019- not yet ratified o Anti-free trade movements have stopped trade negotiations with the US, but also put the Mercosur agreement in doubt  Farmers in Belgium, France and Netherlands concerned that imports of cheap beef and sugar will lead to unfair competition  Brazilian and Argentina cattle are injected with chemicals and the Mercosur countries do not meet EU standards in working conditions, food production or environmental protection  Environmentalist also disagree with the Brazilian President attitude towards the development of the Amazon rainforest - Loss of the UK – detrimental as UK was a major contributor to EU funds and attracted investment and provided a sizeable market - New UK-EU trade deal

Answer 106

- Took over Japan as leading Asian exporter in 2004 , then took over USA in 2007 and Germany in 2009 to become word leading exporter - Slow down since 2010- has been responsible for the cooling off of the global economy as a whole o Led to falling demand for African importer - Expanded its manufacturing of consumer goods for rich countries - Responsible for 31% of world manufacturing output - Imports raw materials from developing countries – Latin America and Sub Saharan Africa - Exports processed metals to and manufactured electronic consumer good to developed countries, particularly those in Europe and N America - Trade war with US over state subsidised steel – high tariffs on traded goods between the countries – main cause of current static growth of world trade

Answer 107

INDIA - Enjoyed sustained and rapid industrial growth over the last 25 years - India has a more diverse economy than China and is more globally integrated in commercial and services sectors - Food security is a crucial issues – green revolution alleviated concerns- but led to agricultural labourers to be laid off – migrated to towns and cities for work - Has a demographic dividend of a large young workforce – attracted investment - Relations - - exports- more westward looking traditionally (USA, EU) (high proficiency of the English language), but trade with Asia (Hong Kong , Singapore, China) and Middle East (UAE) as expanded - Imports- mainly come from China, USA, Saudi Arabi and the UAE - Imports have expanded faster than its exports – trade deficit – making economy vulnerable - Exports petrol, chemicals, gold and diamonds, rice, cars and textiles

Answer 108

LDEs - although the ratio of exports to GDP has risen for most countries, even in LDEs, the 49 poorest countries only account for 0.6% of global trade- compared to 37% of the top five exporting countries - often single-product economies SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA - more disadvantaged than Latin America, and less integrated (language, ethnic and cultural divisions) - minimal intra-regional trade (historically low at 16%) - lack of skills, poor transport and energy infrastructure, widespread corruption – discourage investment that would add value to African exports - rely on imports of most manufactured goods - main trading partner has been Europe- but China getting more involved - has 5 main regional trading groups with some overlap - Changes o Chinese investment – developing infrastructure- increasing connectivity and integration of African nations o The African Continent Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)- the 5 groups agreed to work together in 2018 – became the worlds largest free trade area and single market – came into effect in 2019  Increase intraregional trade – critical for growth and job creation  More voice and leverage on global scale  Dangers * Different levels of development – potential top disadvantage poorest people in some countries * Will need to eliminate monopolies and other competitive behaviour – e.g. state subsides to share prosperity

Answer 109

- 2 distinct trading blocs o Mercosur  Larger in terms of GDP  Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paragurary  Single market and customs union – allows free movement of labour between member states  EU and North America as main markets, with the exception of mineral exports to China  Vulnerable to fluctuating global trade prices as it has globally wanted resources o The Pacific Alliance  Chile, Peru, Columbia, Mexico  More open to making bilateral trade agreements with other nations than Mercosur  Sees Asia-Pacific as its main market  Experiencing faster growth in economies and trade (trans pacific more dynamic than trans Atlantic) o Since 2017, possibility that the 2 groups may merge to form one large free trade area – this would increase intraregional trade and given them more trading power on a global scale  Problems- varying levels of economic development, different political ideologies, political unrest

Answer 110

- Each country’s access to markets is determined by its ability to trade with other countries - Access to international markets is limited by barriers, such as tariffs, quotas or trade regulation (depending on degree of protectionism)

Answer 111

- Better access to markets as o Can afford to pay higher tariffs on exported goods o Can increase access by investing into foreign markets- TNCs can relocate their production inside foreign markets to avoid tariffs o Often form trading blocs and customs unions to allow free trade with each other, but impose barriers outside the union

Answer 112

LDEs - Worse access to markets as o Struggle to pay high tariffs o Struggle to invest in foreign markets o Difficulties entering trade agreements with richer countries o Often focus on exporting primary products that are subject to price volatility – this exacerbates the poor access to markets that LDEs already experience and reinforces inequality

Answer 113

- Trade agreements have impacted the economic and societal well-being of people in those nations - Benefits o Negotiating a trade deal or entering a trade bloc improves access to markets of other countries within that bloc- beneficial for LICs that may be able to freely trade at lower prices, especially if they have exchange rate advantages. o More leverage in trying to gain access to other markets o Open up wider markets - not being included in a trade agreement reinforces a position of isolation and having to overcome trade barriers to gain access - Disadvantages o If a country becomes part of a customs union – it restricts its ability to negotiate new deals and expand trade beyond the members

Answer 114

devasting impacts on economic and societal well-being Economic wellbeing - Poor access to markets deters FDI - Limited revenue from exports and businesses means lack of money for investment or development - Struggle to balance payments – may increase debt and restrict economic growth - Trade sanctions can be used as a weapon – e.g. 2006 the UN Security Council imposed sanctions against Iran and its refusal to suspend its nuclear programme – harmed Iran’s economy – sanctions lifted in 2016

Answer 115

Societal wellbeing - Limited investment, growth and development will cause unemployment and poverty - Limited range and a lack of affordability of imported goods for consumers - Lack of ability to trade can threaten food or energy security

Answer 116

- Special and differential treatment agreemtns (SDTs) o Started in 1971, when the UN created the category ‘least developed countries’ to provide them support to overcome their trading disadvanatges o It gives LDCs preferential access through SDT to developed markets  They can enjoy privledge access to developed ciutnreis  Have the right to restrict imports to a greater degree than developed countries  Freedom to subside exports o This has allowed some LDCs to diversify their economies, achieve economic take off and lift some of their population out of poverty  Problems of SDTs * Richer countries concerned that these non-reciproacal preferential trade agreements cause unfair trade o Many emerging economies such as China sgill have a ‘developing country’ status at the WTO o China refuses to give up their SDT rights and still able to subsidize exports o Fear that this will ruslt in cheap imports flooding markets and undermining HDEs indsurtial bases * Agreements are difficult to apply in a fair or standardised manner * HDEs get nothing in return o In many cases, SDTs have been replaced by bilateral trade agreements between poorer countries and richer trading partners  E.g. Mexico as a member of NAFTA

Answer 117

- TNC- a global company that operates in 2 or more countries

Answer 118

- They no longer only originate from more developed countries, emerging economies also have TNCs which are major global companies ( Tata -India, Xiaomi - China, Amaggi -Brazil) - Many have a larger GDP than some nations - Considerable political influence – persuade governments to reduce taxes or to create special economic zones to attract them - the ten largest TNCs in their field control around 86% of the telecommunications sector, 85% of the pesticides industry, 70% of the computer industry and 35% of pharmaceutical industries

Answer 119

86,85,70,35

Answer 120

- Maximise global economies of scale by using their spatial organisation/ linkages/trading and marketing to reduce costs - Source raw materials or components at the lowest cost - Control key supply chains - Control processing at each stage of production - Brand products so they are easily recognisable

Answer 121

Spatial organisation – how this grows TNCs - General rule o HQ in the country of origin and subsidiary HQ in each continent where it is based (1) o D, R and D, planning, media in home country (HDEs) near centres of higher education (1)(d) o This allows them to take advantage of the graduate labour market and university facilities (1)  E.g. Silcon Valley o Production in LDEs or emerging economies such as China  See later to see why - Top Down Decision making (hierarchical) o Branch plants tend to be recipients of change rather than initating change or making decisions o Vulnerable to sudden closure or job losses in efficiency savings or spending reviews o E.g. UK steel works closed by Tata Steel in 2015 However, with the invention of new technology – such as fracking, production has returned to oil and gas industry bases in HDEs

Answer 122

- More footloose - Locate operation where there are low labour costs and good education, in proximity to markets - High proficiency of language needed- e.g. India – high proportion of well educated English speaking workers

Answer 123

Vertical disintegration / outsourcing When TNCs bypass production completely by outsourcing product from suppliers, rather than directly employing factory workers e.g. Nike Lower wage bills Avoid costly bills for pension schemes Less stringent health and safety policies for workers

Answer 124

relocating part of the organisation, such as manufacturing, to an overseas location to take advantage of lower costs and access to foreign markets

Answer 125

More tnc's opting strategically to use suppliers closer to home due to the risk and costs of the supply chain disruption incurred by natural hazards such as the Japanese Tsunami of 2011, Covid -19 and conflicts in North Africa and the Middle East.

Answer 126

- Take advantage of locational factors and minimise exposure to risk o Should economic climate change or natural hazard – global operations not seriously affected - Tends to be in developing countries (LDEs and EMEs)- outsource or offshore o South East and South Asia

Answer 127

o Why?  Labour costs are lower  Cheap land- .e.g. areas suffering from effects of the industrialization or changes in land use- Honda (Swindon) and Nissan(Washington, Tyne and Wear) Facebook car plants on sites of former airfields  Investment in education, which makes it easier to train workers  Work ethic - workers work longer hours, few holidays, non unionised labour  Government incentives – tax breaks, SEZ, low business rates or less restrictive environmental regulations  Take advantage of foreign exchange rates that makes exports cheaper – Dyson in Malaysia  Exploit mineral or other resources in the foreign countries – e.g. BP in Azerbaijan  Fewer environmental restrictions – e.g. Niger Delta

Answer 128

o How? (dimensions to globalisation)  Technological developments – e.g. refrigeration of fruits and veg  Flexible workforce- willing to travel to jobs overseas and that workers can be trained in their location – e.g. training of call centre emplyess in India for UK based companies  available finance to fund expansion and investment  Globalised transport network  Tax breaks/government incentives * Containerisation – standard transport – ships,trucks, barges, rails

Answer 129

- Or near market (so pays less transport cost and less import/export taxes)- nearsource  Access to large markets * E.g. Kia Motors (South Korea) has factories in Slovakia nd USA to gain access to EU and USMCA markets  Escape trade tariffs (e.g. Nissans decision to produce cars in Sunderland o gain barrier-free access to EU market

Answer 130

- Economies of scale – product specialisation o the cost advantages that a company gains when it increases the size and scale of its operations e.g. Walmart is able to negotiate lower prices of goods from producers because it is buying in bulk

Answer 131

All production occurs in one single location and products are exported to world markets Shein

Answer 132

Host-Market production Each production unit, produces products and serve the national market in which it is located No sale across national boundaries Greggs

Answer 133

Each production unit produces only one product for sale throughout a regional market of several countries individual plant size very large because of scale economies offered by large regional markets Rolls Royce Creates economies of scale

Answer 134

Linkages – growth of TNCs - Links help to expand and gain more control of the industry - Links help TNCs to control and coordinate economic activities in different countries o Enables TNCs to lessen the impacts of trade restrictions and negotiate more favourable terms of trade - Links made with other countries via investment, joint ventures with national or state-controlled companies

Answer 135

when one company buys out another For example, Kraft Foods’ takeover of Cadbury in 2010 gave them a more diverse base in the grocery and confectionery market E.g. the Indian tnc, Tata Steel bought the Anglo Dutch company Corus Steel in 2006 Tata Motors acquired the high end Jaguar Land Rover and Daimler car brands from Ford 2008 allow big businesses to buy out smaller competitors or increase their market share - leading to an eventual monopoly UK based EMI’s US $20 billion merger with Time-Warner created the worlds largest music firm Expand portfolios

Answer 136

when one company merges with another e.g. Exxon merged with Mobil to form Exxon Mobil allow big businesses to buy out smaller competitors or increase their market share - leading to an eventual monopoly UK based EMI’s US $20 billion merger with Time-Warner created the worlds largest music firm Expand portfolios

Answer 137

When a company buys out rival companies at the same stage of production e.g. Kraft’s acquisition of Cadbury and later merger with Heinz

Answer 138

Vertical integration where one company either owns or controls all or multiple stages in the production and distribution chain. e.g. Starbucks is involved in every stage of its supply chain from growing and processing the coffee beans to making and selling the cups of coffee EXAMPLE – BP -has production rights in over 50 oil and gas fields (upstream activities) -owns 11 oil pipelines and has its own shipping fleet - owns refineries - 19000 retail service stations (downstream) This gives the TNC control over its supplies and stocks and reduces costs because of economies of scale.

Answer 139

- TNCs able to take advantage of spatial difference – government policies etc.. - exploit differences in the cost of labour, or materials, land and buildings as well as the availability of capital, tax incentives, subsidies and more favourable government policies - location of production units thus become flexible and allows TNCs to choose least cost locations on a global scale - in this way, trade barriers may be negated by locating production in the host economy, resources can be shifted as local conditions change and specific local factors can be taken advantage of such as access to skilled workers

Answer 140

majority of TNCs trade in HDEs in N America, Europe and Japan - EMEs in S and SE Asia, Middle East and Latin America – increasing demand for consumer goods

Answer 141

- TNCs use global marketing strategies to take advantage of marketing economies and to create a clear brand identity - When a company becomes a global marketeer, it views the world as one single market - Develops a recognisable brand - GOAL- to sell the same or ‘similar’ product with one marketing campaign – to generate economies of scale for the organisation (Standardisation) o E.g. Coca Cola -  Only minor elements tweaked – same formulas but different sized bottles and cans  Same marketing - same slogans, logos and branding - OR creates products that fit the various regional marketplaces.- appeal to different countries, languages and cultures , consumer behaviour and preferences (glocalisation) o Most success ones are down from bottom up approaches – to know what would be well received o E.g. Cadbury make their chocolate sweeter in China o E.g. Mclocalisation – increase number of McCafé’s – coffee culture, Kosher menu, McRise – Indonesia, no beef or pork - Apple is a mixture of both – standardises products, but adapts marketing campaigns- uses celebrities in China to advertise Advertising via Sport - Sports sponsorships o E.g. some fast food chains

Answer 142

- Growth and development o Increases employment o Transfer of skills from HDEs to hosts – long-term benefits by seeing the next generation of designers and manufacturers that will undercut their premium, branded goods o Transfer expertise o Increased purchasing power – multiplier effect – leads to demand for consumer goods and further economic growth o Improved energy and transport infrastructure o Brings technology o Living standards

Answer 143

- Inequalities and injustices o Many jobs are of low skill o Managerial positions are brought in rather than developed locally o Multiplier effects can also be negative  TNCs can be too aggressive and cut corner in housing safety and employee rights o Investment may only be short erm and TNCs may pill out on short notice (top-down ) o Poor working conditions  E.g. the Chinese have been accused of exploiting cheap African labour in the pursuit of cheaper materials o Exploit resources o Repatriation of profits – profits leaked both to HDE HQs o Tax breaks or tax avoidance by TNCs o Inequalities in incomes increase (paid 40% higher) o Small local producers suffocated by foreign investment o Over-specialisation in one commodity or industry – vulnerable to change sin global prices and demand o Too reliant on TNC investment

Answer 144

o More higher order jobs in R and D or management o More people in HDEs likely to become involved in foreign investment/ own shares o Cheaper goods o Economies of scale – product specialisation  the cost advantages that a company gains when it increases the size and scale of its operations e.g. Walmart is able to negotiate lower prices of goods from producers because it is buying in bulk

Answer 145

- Disadvantages o Workforce may need to relocate (visit to operations overseas) o Speculative investments in TNCs for quick returns helped contribute to the global 2008 financial downturn o Loss of manufacturing jobs – deindustrialisation and structural unemployment -> multiplier effect  Derelict factories, areas of deprivation and poverty o TNCs dominate – Clone Towns

Answer 146

- Advantages o Lower costs o Greater access to markets and resources o Fewer controls / lax socio-economic regulations - Disadvantages o Ethical issues – environmental damage or ‘sweatshops’ detrimental to their reputation

Answer 147

1.9 billion

Answer 148

45 billion

Answer 149

97.9 billion

Answer 150

700 000 (CC company)

Answer 151

- Originated in Atlanta, USA- in 1886 - John Pemberton - First year sold 9 drinks a day - Then went to Asa Candler who expanded brands influence

Answer 152

o Vertical integration o Spreads locational risk o Top down decision making – could suddenly close and jobs get lost o Headquarters in America  9000 out of 82500 employees based in US in 2022 o Upstream firms – make the concentrate o Downstream – bottlers purchase the concentrate, mix it with carbonated water and produce the products o R and D in USA, but moved to India recently with a new 2 billion bottling plant

Answer 153

Franchise – company grants permission to indivudals/groups licensing them to carry out commercial activity under their name - Bottling plants in Asia and Africa – bottling plant group – subcontract these companies – franchise and subcontracts to save costs - By end of 20th century, over $1.5 billion committed to new bottling facilities in Africa – - Production in high earning population like India, so near intended consumers, reduces transport costs – also driven by low labour costs, favourable legislation and taxation o Economic benefits- brings capital and modern tech, better infrastructure ,hobs, economic success o Employs 25 000 people directly and 150 000 indirectly in Inida - Manufactured in 40 different countries.

Answer 154

- A third of sale in N America - 70% elsewhere

Answer 155

- 7 acquisitions and 24 investment - $9.4 billion on them - Smart Water (2007- 4 billion) - Powerade - And more - Key – 2010 and 2011- CCC advanced its partnership with CC enterprises by acquiring CCE’s entire north American business – renamed CC refreshments - Costa Coffee for $5.1 billion 2018 - Merged with Pepsi -for vertical integration – this boosted sales. Dr Pepper left behind

Answer 156

- 94% recognise the logo - Coca Cola spends more money on advertising than Microsoft and Apple combined- $4.3 billion in 2022 - 30 year anniversary – Father Christmas campaign – made him red and white – massive cultural impact - In WW2 they marketed coca cola to the Nazis and to soldiers - After the war – engaged in partnerships in sports events – Olympics, FIFA world cup, rugby world cup etc.. - Standardised marketing technique - Famous advert included the ‘I’d like to buy the world a coke’ advert sent the first 80 000 in royalties to UNICEF

Answer 157

- Host Country o 1966- Nutrition project – food techs found solutions to the protein gap in impoverished nations – made brands such as Saci, Sanson and Tai developed in Latin America, using local ingredients o 2001- Coca Cola African Association – prevent and treat HIV/AIDs o Uses its influence to promote equality, justice, and universal values. o Since 2010, 18.5 million had access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene. o Give 1% of annual income to 3 areas- women, water and wellbeing o Provides job security for many. - Origin Country o 1917 – Red Cross partnership in World War One o 1935- Lettie Pate Evans joined the board of directors – 1st of any major company o Provides job security for many.

Answer 158

- Economic - Host country o Employment- 700 000 o Franchise operation means that local bottlers profit from sale – boots local economy – all profits stay in the host country as bottling firms are local o Investment  Coca-Cola has invested $1.5 billion in Russia's economy – manufacturing plants and improving infrastructure.  $200 million bottling plant in Burma – 22 000 jobs  $90 million R and D centre in Shanghai  Invested $2 billion in India since 2011 * Economic benefits- brings capital and modern tech, better infrastructure ,hobs, economic success * Employs 25 000 people directly and 150 000 indirectly in Inida  Investment in these markets drives economic growth o 5by20 scheme launched in 2010– 6 million women enabled across 100 countries – business skills training, access to financial services

Answer 159

o Have developed sustainable packaging methods (tho not necessarily implemented them )  2009- made the first recyclable PET plastic beverage bottle made 30% from plants  2015- 100% plant materials o Uses marketing to increase awareness of recycling – joined forces with celebrity and national events to do this – e.g. South Korea- Plastic Waste Zero o Sustainable agriculture schemes – rainwater harvesting system at tea supplies in China o 2007 -WWF partnership – freshwater conservation in 7 main basins, mitigating global warming and extreme weather  Climate * In Guatemala , the partnership works on climate-smart projects to manage watersheds , prevent forest fires and plant trees * In Mexico, Sierra Tarahumara communities reive drought support through rainwater harvesting * South Africa disruptions to water supply addressed by removing invasive plants , and restoring watersheds  Freshwater * Yangtze Rver Basin – they ran pilot prohects and ocnsvertaion efforts which have been scaled up and adpted by the government o Reintrducd the Pere David deer and finless prpoises o Create weltands for wastewater treatment o Suported fishing moratoriums o Chinese government now safeguards over 200 000 hectares of high consevrtional valu wesltnad o They are water balanced and return 100% if water used in drinks back into environment.- reached this goal 5 years ahead of schedule o By 2020, 56% of the companys priority ingredient volumes were sustaniabily sources o 50% of product sales in 20 marktes coming from returbale glass bottles and refillable PET o Project Catalyst in Australia – engages with sugarcane famers to reduce runoff to Great Barrier Reef o Aim- reduce carbon emissions by 25% by 2030 from a 2015 base year o Changing policies

Answer 160

- Social o Poor working conditions?  Charges of murder, rape, and torture from union leaders and families gain t Coca Cola and co in Guatemala 2010  In Uraba Colombia in the 1990s – owner of Coca Cola plant formed a coalition with the paramilitaries and use them to persuade workers to leave trade unions and accept poorer working conditions o Health problems -obesity  Americans ingest 1.7 million tons -- or 10.8 pounds per person -- of sugar each year from Coca-Cola alone o Workers encouraged to abandon union membership in some LDEs - Guatemala o Pesticide residue in some products (Coke contained 30 times pesticide residue than considered acceptable by the EU

Answer 161

- Economic o Capitalizes on low worker wages, takes advantage of favourable conditions in these areas provide by government incentives – repatriation of prints and economic leakage o Vulnerable to top down decision making – suddenly lave - Environmental o Plastic pollution is high  200 000 bottles produced per minute (100 billion a year)  33 football pitches every day  Top producers of plastic (more than 2 and 3 combined) for 3 years in a row o Uses as much fossil fuels as 2 coal power plants + diesel trucks for transport o Water security – Rajistan – exploding water table – some ffarmers had to shut down  2012- Coca Cola used more water than around 25$ of the world population  Water pollution in Kerala, India – bottling plant shut down in 2004 due to impact on water qunaity or quality o Changing policies  In 1990 -promised an average 25% in PET bottles, no 3 decades later still only 10%

Answer 162

- Staple for 500 million - Most produced fruit - A lot of energy ,90 calories per 1000 grams - A single banana provides more than an adults daily potassium requirement - Very low cost in UK supermarkets – due to competition o UK supermarkets use them as loss leaders, selling them so cheaply that no prift is ade – using the low prices to lure in shoppers (at front of supermarket). Bananas also on price comparison websites

Answer 163

- $15 billion a year revenues - 5th most traded agricultural commodity - Exports 23.3 million tonnes - Cash crop, yet 80% of bananas produced are for local or national consumption

Answer 164

- Need warm climate and high ranfall – 27 degrees or more and 2000-2500mm of rain a year - Lowlands of tropical regions - Dominated by 2 groups- ACP group- afroca, caribeen, pracific and the ’dollar producers’ in central America – Ecuador and Columbia controlled by US TNCs – Chiquita and Del Monte o Ecuador, Costa Rica, Columbia, Guatmalal, Panama o Asia produces 17% of export markest, main producers are the Philppines o Africa- Cote d’loovire and Cameroon - Cariibean – small and medium scale growers on family famrs and coppertaives – fair trade - Latin America and increasingly in Africa – large monolcultr palanatations - Philippines and Africa – used to be small scale, now more TNC involvement - produces 120 million tonnes in 2019 (not all exported) - TOP 4 PRODUCERS ARE INDIA, CHINA , INDONESIA, AND BRAZIL also 4 largest consumers

Answer 165

- With exception of the Philippines, 80% Exports are dominated by Latin America and the Caribbean countries – 17 million tonnes for export in 2018. - Ecuador is biggest exporter. - Philippines growing exporter to Japan, E Asia and the middle east.

Answer 166

- Europe and N America - Russia and China - Developed

Answer 167

- 19th century shipping magnates and railroad entrepenurs discovered how ludacritve bana trade was - North America growing taste for fruit - Made monopolies, manipulated governments in Central America to keep cost low – unequal power relations - Little benefit to host nations and all bananas exprorted - Country’s economy is now dependent on one commodity , so pay kept low to allow for counted exports - Guatamala and Hondura particulary unstable

Answer 168

- dominated by 4 TNCs – Chiquita, Dole, Del Monte (all US based) and Fyffes – based in Ireland , also the national company Noboa in Ecaudor - Vertical integration – they control each part of the supply chain - 2002- 5 big companies controlled 70% of market

Answer 169

- SHIFT – towards indepdnat producers due to growth of fairtrade and increased consumer awareness/ pressure to get from producers, not TNCs - 2017- 5 companies control 45% - TNCs now subcontracting plantations - Growing number of national companies -can sell to TNCs or straight to reatilers – growing domiant role

Answer 170

Benefits - Bananas have a fairly low environmental impact due to low carbon footprint (0.48 kg of co2 per kilo) - Disadvantages - Trated with chemicals to prevent disease - 30 g of fungicides, insecticides and herbicides per hectare, per year - Grown with fertlisers and washed with disinfectant - Except for cotton, output the most agrochemicals into the environment - Deforestation due to planatations – loss of biodiveristy - Waste produced- 2 tonnes for every tonne of banas - Soil fertitlity impacted- as chemcicals contmiante it and nutrients are lsot from the litter layer - Contiinated water ways and reduced in biodiversity - Banana plantations are monoculture which reduced number of species of insects and inversat be supported in the ecosystem

Answer 171

- Reptraiation of profits- 90% of the cost paid by cosnmers stays in the north and never reaches the rpdocuers - 42% of profits taken by retailers – Tesco or Walmart - 85% of price paid stays in richer country - Workers on average receive 5-9% of toral value, retailer 36-43% - 80% banana trade controlled by a 4 companies – top down o Noboa – 60% of market , 2002, now 45% o This have given retailers great power, forces uppliers to accept low price and delayed payment etc.. o Vertical integration  Large TNCs own planatations, have their own transport and ripening faicliges and direbtuion networks in consuming countries  This makes economies of scale as specialsiing in one product, making it very cheap * In 2002, £1.08 for a kilo bunch of banas, in 2018, 93p – 14% drop o Hard to keep bananas low prices anymore so many TNCs relocating to W Africa in search on lower labour costs and weaker legislation – ‘race to the bottom’ in terms of social and envro standards  Plnatationw ork is based on subcontracted casual albour  Involves long hsidfts in hear , low pay - National companies are on the rise , Columbia, ecuador and costa rica

Answer 172

- 1975- EU made a Trade agreement with former colonies at the Lome Convention – 71 ACP countries signed it o Countries given SDT with preferential tarrif free import quaotas to supply EU markets o Intended to help the colonies develop – without need for foreign aid o It protected small farms in ACP from latin America TNCs - At the same time, Latin AmericA US TNCs were supplying 75% of the EU markets, and only 7% of caribeen supplier - In 1992, TNCs fieled a comaplant to the WTO said that this was unfair trade - In 1997, WTO ruled against the EU, and made it cease discrimination - US sanctions on a range of EU products - 20 yr dispute , 1992-2012 - 2009 Geneva Banana Agreement – compromise, EU wil gradually reduce tariifs from 2012 onwards - Concerns from ACP producers that they cannot compete – but focusing on ethical and organic, fair trade nabans to meet demand in richer countries - WTO upholding free trade at all costs despite efforts to develop poorer countries

Answer 173

A new disease – TR4- ruining plantation in S E Asia , Asutrilia and nw Africa - Resistant to fungicides (concern in Latin America) - Creates the Cavendish vaityt, no seeds, forced to genetically movidifed or change consumer behavior u

Answer 174

- Free trade meant the through reprtaion of rpfoits, that the farmers earnt very little percentage of the profit - Fair trade gives more profit to farmers, as well as socioeconomic opprounties - Faitrade banas have become widespread and logo known by many o In 2018, 1/3 of bananas sold in the UK were fair trade o Grown on small scale farms and sold via cooperatives o Several pence more expensive  Yet people still buy them- shift in consumer awareness and fair trades appeal o Companies such as Cadbury’s Nestle and Ben and Jerry going fairtrade

Answer 175

Example of small scale producers - El Guabo Association of small banaa producers - Onwod the largest producers and exporters of fairtrade banas - 30 thousand boxes a week tot usa and Europe Economic benefits - Income is stable - Improves standard of living - Guaranteed fair wage and long term supply contracts – access to new markets - Earning more of the prfits so can raise capital for reinvestment - Labours helped to buy their own land Social - Health care benefits to families of cooperative - Educational and medical supplies - Retirement benefits and social security - Food baskets - Find employment for HIV/AIDs sufferes

Answer 176

My life? - Fairtrade food - Increased consumer awareness and changing behaviour

Answer 177

o For example, Japanese car manufacturers Honda, Nissan and Toyota saw the UK as a base for car production in the 1990s and invested there as it gave them tariff-free access to the whole EU market of half a billion people, most of them car-owning households. As a result:  People in areas undergoing deindustrialisation, such as Sunderland, gained employment at Nissan’s factory  Imports of cars from Europe were cheaper as there were no tariffs  No tariffs and economies of scale – reduced car prices o Now left EU?  Impact now? o Price of electronic goods has fallen as they are produced in lower-cost locations o As a consumer can buy food relatively cheaply all year round from a wide range of countries – has major TNCs have more control of supply chian and supermarkets can play less to import food from other countries o Fair trade is now an option for me as a consumer o Outsourcing and offshoring – deindustrialisation, wages remained stagnant

Answer 178

- Political consequences o Growing inequality within countries o Backlash against further integration o Rise in national populism – Brexit - Social and cultural o Greater access to foreign culture such as film, music, food, clothing and other goods and services o Cultural homogeny – over standardisation o Increased awareness of global news and events- which can be positive in informing people of environmental issues such as climate change, but can be used negatively, for example, for propaganda purposes by terrorist organisations - Environmental o CC impact - Health – covid impact - SEE DISADVANTAGES AND ADVANTAGE FOR TNC ORIGIN COUNTRY – similar

Answer 179

o Political  Donald Trump – protectionist o Environmental  More transportation – greenhouse gas emissions and pollution  Depletion of non–renewable resources  Environmental degradation where TNCs operate  Weak controls which allow pollution of air, land and water  Waste from packing – landfill  IMF- enforced spending cuts reduce many nations spending on the environment o Health  Greater movement giving higher risk of diseases and invasive species being introduced o SEE DISADVANTAGES OF TNC FOR HOST COUNTRY o Emerging economies , TNCs, International organisation and regional trading blocs have become the main benefits of international trade  Emerging economies – developed rapidly and become major economic powers  TNCs- become global powers  International organisation * IMF, WB, WTO consolidate their position and control of global systems * Regional trading blocs- improved negotiating leverage and greater access to markets

Answer 180

Variable access to markets impacts on me - Better access - cheaper food - more developed Variable access to markets impacts on others

Answer 181

- ‘..sum of the many ways individuals and institutions public and private, manage their global affairs..’ o Note this definition goes beyond the obvious regulatory institutions

Answer 182

- As the world becomes more interdependent, global governance is increasingly important for achieving sustainable development across all nations. - This is especially true for governance of the ‘global commons’ where environmental sustainability is at the forefront of our concerns.

Answer 183

means enforcing sets of rules that have been agreed by the nations involved.(e.g. Antartic Treaty)

Answer 184

- the way that existing global systems remain largely unchanged and are even extended and reinforced by regulation. o which is in the interests of the wealthier countries that dominate them.

Answer 185

- establishment of international legal agreements - governance by institutions - extension and reinforcement of social norms on a global scale

Answer 186

- Norms are the values, traditions and customs that govern individuals’ behaviour in any particular society - some may be unspoken and never written down, but they're widely understood - 'It's the done thing." o E.g. Human Rights -UN Declaration of human rights - Norms often become enshrined in laws that reflect the acceptable standards associated with a specific cultural background. - Observers argue that the norms expressed and contained within international regulations are largely determined by the wealthier, more powerful and developed countries, mainly based in the western world. - Norms therefore based on free market, capatilist economic systems and democracy o To become party of the global system must adapt to these economic and political systems

Answer 187

- The international laws (mandatory rules) or regulations contained within international agreements are based on the values and customs that exist and guide behaviour within society. - INTERNATIONAL LAWS ARE BASED ON SOCIETAL NORMS o It is very difficult to establish laws or treaties that encompass social norms on a global scale as national or regional outlooks and societies differ so much. o This may have consequences for how nations committing to international agreements interpret and enforce them.- consequences in areas such as conservation management and in the protection of human rights

Answer 188

 These agreements are formulated, maintained, and enforced by intergovernmental agencies or institutions, such as the UN, the World Bank, World Trade Organization (WTO) or similar organisations.  Actors – national governments , TNCs , International organisation in regulating and reproducing global governance

Answer 189

 Reactive o Legislative and invest, to implement international initiatives, laws, targets or agreements o For example…. o The UK Government’s recent support for renewable energy sources, to reduce dependence on fossil fuels and climate changing emission is, in part a response to new EU laws on dirty power stations  Proactive o Lobby for and contribute to international discussions , votes and decisions o For example o Some national governments have more influence than others on the UN Security Council – CHINA, FRANCE, RUSSIA, THE UK AND USA are all permanent members of the UN Security Council and often take leadership roles in conflict resolution

Answer 190

 Reactive o Compensate and adopt new codes of conduct or working practices imposed by legislation or socio economic pressure  For example, in the wake of collapse of the eighty story Rana Plaza building near Dhaka, in Bangladesh in 2013, clothing company Primark – part of multinational company associated British foods – paid compensation and provided emergency aid to the victims of the disaster  Proactive o sponsor and support the work of NGOs and international organisations  for example, tobacco companies such as British American Tobacco and others sponsor anti-smoking NGOs within LDEs, for example in SE Asia, to publicise the health risks of smoking, thereby protecting themselves form the sort of law suits seen in HDEs in recent decades

Answer 191

 Reactive o Respond to global events to offer advice to national governments and publicise the work of NGOs already on the ground  The WHO was late to offer guidance on how to contain the Ebola virus in the early stages of the 2014-2015 epidemic in west Africa  Proactive o Sponsor, facilitate and publicise international issues and agreements to address them o For example o In 2013, the UNI Global Union, in alliance with leading NGOs, sponsored and created the legally binding Bangladesh Accord on Fire and Building safety, to protect working conditions in the ready -made garment industry o The accord has been signed by 200 clothing companies – from over 20 counties, leading to the inspection of 1500 factories in the first two years

Answer 192

o Aim is to promote international peace, security and cooperation o Has the great political authority at a global level o Takes action on peace and security, climate change, ustibale development human rights, poverty etc..

Answer 193

UN Security Council - maintain world peace security - 5 permanent members plus 10 temporary members who are lected every 2y years Promote growth and stability - Facilitated nuclear disarmament since th cold war (Office of Disarmament Affairs) - Promotes geopolitical stability – by sending ‘neutral’ peacekeeping troops to interced and de-escalte in regions where there is conflict - It has developed and strengthen international relations since its inception they've been no further well conflicts in over 170 peaceful UN settlements have ended regional conflicts positive peacekeeping missions in Africa that largely main managed to maintain a fragile peace (Office of Peacekeeping Operations

Answer 194

- UN Security council – has a history on not agreeing on resolution in some major conflicts – for example, in Syria and on Russia’s annexation on Crimea o Those on the security council have more influence o E.g. China increasingly willing to lead and behave like the great power it has become - Powerful military states have ignored you and opinions and mandates notably the Soviet Union and China - the UN has sometimes only had minor influence on the outcome for example in the Vietnam War in the 1962 Cuban missile crisis or present day Chinese expansion in the South China Sea - numbers of nuclear powers in the world has kept increasing most recently North Korea - power of veto gives some countries more power in decision making (security council members)

Answer 195

UN General Assembly and International Court of Justice - Fosters cooperation by facilitating dialogue and negotiation between nations – helps solves disputes and finds areas of agreement - Settles disputes with international law through the international court of justice Promote growth and stability - International law is established within a world legal framework - independent arbitrator and upholds a strong moral code Exacerbate inequalities and injustices o Limited repercussions for countries that do not follow mandates o unipolarity where one state exercises most of the cultural economic and military influence exists for example US geopolitical influence in the Middle East may have shielded Israel from wider UN criticism o financial dependence on highly developed economies leaves you open to criticism of impartiality  for example US cell invasion of Iraq in 2003 in such a weapons of mass destruction that we ever found by you and weapon inspectors

Answer 196

Promote growth and stability - UN Development Programme – eradicte poverty and inequality and exclusion o Successfully met most of the MDGs o Currently working on SDGS Exacerbate inequalities and injustices - UN Development Programme o Criticised for a lack of agreement and subsequent inaction on many security issues o Limited power to enforce compliance to regulation by national governments o More powerful nations sett the agenda for their own self-interest – funding

Answer 197

- Manages international public health issues by combating and eradicting spread of global disease - Monitor outbreaks and declare global pandemics - Arm of the UN - Promote growth and stability o Has eradicated small pox (1979) and nearly eradicated polio o Good co-ordination to COVID-19 pandemic - Exacerbate inequalities and injustices o Equally, criticised for lack of leadership and efficacy on COVID-19 and Ebola virus in the past o Critics have called for improved vaccine stockpiling and responses to epidemics o AIDS pandemic continues to cross countries and continents

Answer 198

IMF and World Bank o Established at the end of the world war to stabilise the global economy and provide financial stability o Regulate and act as intermediaries in the flow of international capital - Promote growth and stability - IMF o IMF offers financial and tech assiance o Provide bail out to resolve porblmes that may lead to an global economic crisis – ‘lender of last resort’ o Provide laosn to help member tackle balcne of payment problems and stablishe eocnomies - WB o Promotes reduction of poverty and provies development assistance through government bonds o Prvvides lng term investment loans for development project throught the International Bank of Recontrcution and Development o Encourage san d advises start up enterpirse in developing countries

Answer 199

- Exacerbate inequalities and injustices o IMF funding is paid by its 189 members and wealthier nations have more influence – give them more powerful vote on decision o As part of their conditions for loans, the IMF has been known to impose severe cuts on spending by governemnts in developing countries – adverlsy affectin education and welfare o Rescue loans provided by the IMF has to be paid back at high interest rates - WB o Also funded by members, mainly wealthiest nations – influence? o Conditions attached to WB loan isnit on reproduction of capitalist and free trade markt models – which do not always reduce poverty o WB – fudned major top down project s- such as a large multipurpose dams to provide hep- but these have not helped reduced poverty  Yet now, claiming ot support more sustaible bottom up development

Answer 200

- 1995 – successor to GATT which was established after WW2 - Cover 98% of world trade - Promote growth and stability o Encourages removal of barriers and protectionist policeis o Resolve trade disputes o Provides a forum for trade negotiation o Adminsteres trade agremtns that become ground rules for international commerce o Progress during the Doha Development Round o Bali Package – an agreement between all members to speed up the movement of traded good sand reduce costs by removing red tape in customs procedures o Nairobi Package – export subsidies for farm exports were abolished  Preferential treatemetn given for LDCs in service trade  Safeguardign measures introduced to ensure food security in LDCs  Improved measures for LDC cotton traders  Some tarde barrier removal on goods of LD Corgin

Answer 201

o Negotiations have been limited o Doha Development Round (2001-2015)  Focused on reforming trade in agriuclutral produce between advanced and developing economies – with an aim of helping less developed nations out of poverty  Difficult to reach a multi lateral trade agreement with 164 countries , each with their own interest  Trade disagreements primarily revolved around HDEs (USA, EU, Japan) and developing economies (Brazil, India, China).  HDEs wanted open markets for their goods in return for access, while emerging economies sought cuts in subsidies to US and EU farmers.  Disputes included tariff sizes, opposition to 'safeguard clauses, (LDCs could impose emergency quoats on imports) and divisions among LDCs.  The EU was more open to agricultural trade than the US.  China, a global exporter, claimed developing country status, leading to accusations of unfair trade practices by the US due to state aided production.

Answer 202

NGOS - Operate across boundaries and at all scales – important participants in interactions that influence global governance. - Get their money from donations and subscription, but also some receive money from governemtns and other business (though this may compromise their independence) - Types of NGOs o Operational – provide frontline support services for the needy – Oxfam, Médecins sans Frontières o Advocacy- focus on campaigns to raise awareness to gain support for a cause – for example, Greenpeace - Promote growth and stability. o They can mobilise strong support from individual citizens, giving them more authority to challenge the excesses of TNCs and national governments that threaten equality, justice or the environment and to influence governance. o They are becoming increasingly important in supporting development and are often the only co-ordinated organisations to provide a voice for the poor. o NGOs have emerged as a global force (due to great communication, including social media) and they  Democratic decision -making and encourage governments to consider ‘bottom- ip’ approaches  Protect human rights  Provide essential service such as food, water or medical help to the most needy

Answer 203

- Global governance is a result of many different influences, systems and control networks. Different ones may operate at different scales; others operate at all levels but in different forms.

Answer 204

Local - Individual citizens - Local government – borough or district councils - Individual influences Regional - Regional government – e.g. Welsh assembly , Scottish Parliament, Metropolitan areas

Answer 205

- National government o Central to understanding global governance is the fixed reality of nearly 200 individual sovereign states and their national territories - Collaboration of nation-states o In reality, nation-states exercise sovereign authority over their territories and interests beyond national boundaries - governments 'pool sovereignty' when it is in everyone's best interests.  For example, EU countries adopt a regional-based approach to economic planning and migration. o Nation states also collaborate in areas such as military intelligence, training, border security and joint missions.  The world is transnational and highly interdependent even for the largest military powers (e.g. the USA working within NATO). - Business lobby – national level – e.g. CBI - Civil society groups (NGOs, pressure groups, non -profit institutions) o National NGOs such as WaterAid and Oxfam often have projects that function at the local scale (INTERACTION)

Answer 206

International - International NGOs e.g. WWF, Greenpeace o NGOs work increasingly in partnerships with other stakeholders, such as governments, international organisations and other civil society groups - Intergovernmental agencies – WB - International groups – e.g. G7,G20, OECD, EU o At a national scale entire country may be integrated into an international trade network as a result of changed practices. Mexico became a member of the OECD in 1994 once it demonstrated a commitment to the dominant norms of democratic government and a market driven industrial strategy. - International commerce -e.g. TNCs Global - Global governance -e.g. UN, UNEP, UNFCC, WTO - UN organises world summits, which bring together world leaders to agree on strategies to tackle global issues – such as sustainable development and climate change (INTERACTION WITH THE NATIONAL LEVEL) - Emergency relief operated through arms of UN where a natural disaster has occurred- e.g. Haiti earthquakes

Answer 207

- WHO – arm of the UN , health goals is implemented at local level in region smost rpone to the infection and with fewest resources to comat infection and spread o E.g. provides mosquito nets to remote rural communities close to areas of stagnant water - WHO also requires assurance at the national level that its workers will be safe and given access to the reousrces they require to complete their actions

Answer 208

- At a regional level the World Bank finances projects intended to improve conditions for those in need of financial assistance. - A cross-border project is the Niger River project where nine countries with land in the Niger Basin to better manage water resources to improve food and energy security. - Other projects are regional – but within one country such as the Cusco regional development project in Peru to increase the ability of the cultural attraction to cope with increasing tourist numbers through a waste management programme. - The World Bank will provide finance as long as key commitments are made by receiving countries.

Answer 209

Interactions at all scale – Earth Summit 1992 example - At the Earth Summit in io de Janiero – leaders of the international community adopted Agenda 21 – blueprint for sustainable development in the early part of 21st century - Focused on combating poverty, and conservation an dmanagment of resources - Interactions o Agenda 21 plans were cascade down from international agencies, such as the unep, to national government and then through to regional and local government decision- making , in order to influence the actions of individuals o Each local authority in the UK has a Local Agenda 21 stragtey in line with the UN objectives and actions -led to various recycling options as part of waste collection o It was seen as a ‘top down’ approach , which encouraged a ‘bottom-up’ response , as the ideas are designed to filter down from the UN to encourage more sustainable lifestyles and behaviour o Agenda 21 also strengthen the role of NGOs and civil societies in the decision making process

Answer 210

- Paris Agreement 2015- keep global temperatures below 2 degrees above preindustrial levels to avert the worse effects of global warming - Lack of action by government to impose measures to address the climate emergency – led to citizen led protests – bottom up o Events organised by environmental pressure groups – Extinction Rebellion – NGOs- Greenpeace o 2019- ‘School Strike for Climate’ protest – Great Thunberg – supported by 1.5 million school children and students  UK Student Climate Network organise these strikes - Pressure from citizens, civil society groups, NGOs and from local and regional government led the UK government to make a declaration of an ‘environemtn and climate emergency’ in 2019 - Other interactions – Worrd Sustiable Development Summit – brings together leaders, scholars and stakeholders – heads of states, nobel laureates, business leaders and delegates o WDSE formed Act4Earth which aims encourage active knowledge construction among leaders

Answer 211

These examples demonstrate the interactions between governance and decision-making that take place at different scales and between different ‘players’ at each scale. Similar ideas can be applied to other global issues, such as the transmission of COVID-19 in the global pandemic. Not all issues affect all scales and although we live in a globalised world, most governance is retained at the national level. In the UK, for example, decisions about the building of a high-speed rail (HS2) link and stopping fracking for gas are made at national government level but are influenced from above and below

Answer 212

Slow and Ineffectual o Institutions like the UN, IMF, G20 and WTO are slow and ineffectual – often due to self interest of nation states o If nation states allowed these principles to be implemented and these institutions are empowered to produce concrete results rather than simply using declaration s- then global governance would more successful Political issues - States become more susceptible to polices adopted by others o Due to deepening economic globalisation, migration, trade and capital flow Economic issues - Collaboration needs to improve among the IMF. G20 and OECD if international jurisdiction and regulation of finance and capital flows are to improve - There are 'no rules of the game' existing for global governance o that there are 'no rules of the game' existing to deal with the unsustainable debt burdens of some sovereign states Social issues - There is currently no agency tasked with think about new and emerging long term trends in agricultural and food security and the impact of this on current polcies and practices - There is no international law ensuring and enforcing water security - Poor coordination to deal with epidemics and vaccine stockpiling Environmental issues - Too many stakeholders that it restricts progress o environmental governance involving so many agencies and agreements that duplication and incoherence is restricting progress - Fear that the International Atomic Energy agency is not empowered to impose regulations on the nuclear industry Security issues - troubling gaps were highlighted in the global governance of science and technology, urbanisation, migration, energy and even transnational crime. - Cybersecurity has little governance - Fears that some sort of regulation would be worse than none - So the international challenge will be how best to maintain a free flow of information while limiting various forms of 'cyber-aggression" without giving national governments license to curb the flow of information for political purposes.

Answer 213

- The Centre for International Governance Innovation – CIG – identified a number of critical inequalities and injustices in almost every sector of global governance - These gaps’ are impeding progress in the global economy, security, development and environment o Key themes o Jurisdictional gap  Gap between the increasing need for global governance in many areas (such as health and water security) and the lakc of authority with the power or jusridciton to taken action * E.g. Climate Change and increased activities in the global commons do not fall within the jurisdiction of any one particular country – so need WHO, UNEP o The incentive gap  Gap between the need for international cooperation and the motivation to undertake it . This gap is closing as globalisation in increasing impetus for countries to cooperate  Concerns that Africa lags further behind economically and its influence on global governance will dimmish o The participation gap  Refers to the fact that international cooperation remain primalriy on the affair of government, leaving civil society groups on the fringes of polic making  Globalisation of communication is facilitating the development of global civil society movement

Answer 214

The ‘global commons’ refers to resource domains or areas that lie outside of the political reach of any one nation state and to which all nations have access.. It is a term used to describe supra-national ‘spaces’ in which common shared resources can be found. International law recognises four global commons: - the high seas - the atmosphere - Antarctica - outer space. - Some commentators would argue that cyberspace has also emerged as a new domain which meets the definition of a ‘global common’ by being a resource that is shared by all but is not controlled by any single nation. o This includes the development of the worldwide web, one of the main drivers of globalisation. - Others define the set of global commons even more broadly - to include science, education, information and peace. - Some go as far to suggest that they are the collective heritage of humanity — the shared resources of nature and society that we inherit. create and use'

Answer 215

International law relating to the global commons is guided by the common heritage of mankind principle. - This is a principle in international law that defined territorial areas and elements of humanity’s common heritage should be held in trust for furtue generations and be protected from exploitation by individual nation states or corporation - Natural resources in these area held in common by all nations - These resources are to be distributed equitably for the benefit of everyone, including for future generations; individual nations have no sovereign rights to exploit them. Rights and benefits assoctaed with global commons can only be assured through coherent coordinated and collective decision maing at the global level

Answer 216

* This concept explains why shared ‘common access resources’ of any type are likely to be overexploited. * The term was made popular by Thomas Hardin in his 1968 essay “The Tragedy of the Commons.” o Hardin suggested “Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.” * If individuals act independently and according to their self-interest, this will be contrary to the interest of the whole group because the shared resource will become depleted. * This is exactly what has happened on a global scale to fish stocks, which have been overfished, leading to depletion, marine pollution and loss of sustainability.

Answer 217

Under pressure? - Historically, access to most of the resources found within these domains has been difficult and they have not been scarce. - on the global commons to provide resources for a needy ( increased demand) and developing world. - These changes mean that the concept of common heritage is being put under increasing pressure.

Answer 218

- The international community acknowledges the need to conserve these resource domains, both for development and human well-being. - In consequence it has adopted a number of conventions and treaties to govern the global commons. o UN coordinates this o However, frameworks covering them are complex and fractured o Large parts of the commons are still without regional agreement and many older agreement do not fully consider the environmental impact sof human acitives o New activities – such as bioprospecting the high seas are not being regulated o In a world where many nation states and governments sign up to international agreements but then fail to enforce or even respect them, protecting global commons is easier said than done.  Post-2015 UN Development Agenda should be able to preserve global commons for future genations - 'Governance of the global commons is required to achieve sustainable development and thus human wellbeing. We can no longer focus solely on national priorities for economic development and environmental protection.* (Johann Rockström, Director, Stockholm Environment Institute)

Answer 219

- 'Governance of the global commons is required to achieve sustainable development and thus human wellbeing. We can no longer focus solely on national priorities for economic development and environmental protection

Answer 220

- High seas - * United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) - * International Maritime Organisation and Regional Seas Conventions of the United Nations Environment - Programme (UNEP) - Atmosphere - * United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and a multitude of international environmental treaties including the Paris Climate Accord - Antarctica - * Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) - * Protocol on Environmental Protection - Outer space - - Treaty on Principles governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space 1967 - Moon agreement 1979- moon and all other resources of space are the common heritage of mankind

Answer 221

- Most of Antarctica is south of the Antarctic Circle (66.33S), with the exception of parts of the East Antarctic coastline and the Antarctic Peninsula which extends northwards from West Antarctica to about 63°S. - Surrounded by the southern ocean o Delimited in 2000 from the southern Atlantic, Indian and pacifc oceans - Antarctic convergence zone o Where the southern ocean hits the south Atlantic o 32-48km wide o Cold northward flowing water from antarctic meet with warmer sub anatrtic waters o Cold water upwelling bring nutrients and has high biodiversity – phytoplkanktan feeds krill – very high marine porducivity - the Convergence Zone at around 60 degrees latitude south; this gives rise to the largest surface current in the world - the Antarctic Circumpolar Current which flows around Antarctica. o blocks warmer water travelling south, flows in eastwards direction by westerly wind (West Wind Drift) o Also a smaller current East Wind Drift goes eatly o The area where the eats and west wind dift meet is the Anartica zone of divergence Size - If it were a country, it would rank only behind Russia in size - Size of 58 UK’s - Made up of 8 million km2 of land beneath 13.8 million km2 of ice – which is up to 4km thick in places

Answer 222

- The Antarctic ice sheet is the largest single mass of ice on earth - 98% of Antarctica is covered in an ice sheet which overspreads the shore and flows out to sea as glaciers and ice sheets. - The largest of these are the Ross Ice Shelf in the Ross Sea and the Ronne Ice Shelf in the Weddell Sea. o Each of these ice shelves covers an area greater than the British Isles. - mountainous and rocky terrain - Antarctica is the highest continent with an average height to 2500 metres above sea level o it does have high mountains it is the thickness of the ice sheets would give us it's high average elevation - the country is unevenly divided into east Antarctica and West Antarctica by the transantarctic mountains -peaks above 4000 m - The Elsworth mountains in the west- 4892m peak- highest peak - West Antarctica is part of the ring of fire - East is larger, thicker and older than west - Beneath the ice of the west antartic , there is an archipelago of steep mountainous island -some exposed at Peninsula – stretch to tip of S America - Nunataks – e.g. Una Peaks at Cape Renard in Grhahm Land on Antartic Penisula o Pinnacles of rock emerging above ice sheets , high winds and steep slopes top snow accumulating - Dry valleys – it hasn’t rain there for over 2 mill years o E.g. Wright Valley near McMurdo dry valleys o High altitude area of extreme aridity

Answer 223

Climate - Coldest, windiest and driest contient - it hasn't rained in the dry valleys for over 2,000,000 years - technically a cold desert because of its low precipitation but contain 70% of the world's freshwater - Get to -89 degrees , average – 50 - lowest every temperature was -94.7°C in August 2010 on the east Antarctic plateau - High average wind speed – 50 mph o gales can reach 200 mph - Less than 50mm per year of rain avg - Ice sheets which are 2.5 kilometres take a result of the of accumulation of small inputs of snow and frost which far exceeded patient rates over a very long time - Ice is thicker on the east side, and is melting on the west, near the peninsula

Answer 224

Humans - No indigenous population - Least populated continent on earth - Scientific research on Antarctica accounts for almost all of the semi-permanent population of the continent Biodiversity - Vegetation is limited by cold, aridity, wind and lack of soil o Lichens and mosses predominate o Tiny insects and mites - surrounding seas  Penguins, petrels, seals, -> rarely venture inland  Convergence zone – phytoplankton and krill  It is estimated that the 379 million tonne biomass of all Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) exceeds that of all humans!

Answer 225

DOES NOT HAVE A UNIFORM IMPACT - East accumulating small amounts of land ice and large amounts of sea ice , west losing significant quantities of both land and sea ice

Answer 226

WEST AND PENINSULA - Unlike the east, where the ice is frozen onto rock (cold-based), much of the glacial ice in the west is warm and more likely to slide into the sea, which would raise global sea levels by 5 m. - W Antartic Ice Sheet has thinned signifcanlty - This warming is not restricted to the land and Southern Ocean temperatures to the west of the Antarctic Peninsula have also increased by over 1°C since 1955. - It has also been established that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is warming more rapidly than the global ocean as a whole. Peninsula - V sensitive to small rise in annual temperature - Antarctica peninsula temp increasing 5 times as fast as the rets of the world – temps risen by 0.5 degrees every decade for past 60 years Impacts - West is melting, which is impacting marine life in southern ocean - Effect on the rest of the world- with a meting Antarctic, reduced albedo effect so earth gets even warmer – positive feedback - Warming has effect o Penguin colonies distribution o Melting of snow and ice has increased colonisation by plants o Decline in krill o Retreating glacier and ice shelves in the west  Melting of sea ice (Rossi and Ronne ice shelf) has no effect on sea level , but the melting of ice shelf means that land base ice is no longer restrained  Thwaites glacier – if melted /collapsed sea level would rise by 63cm

Answer 227

o Ice sheet is thickening o How?- negative feedback  Warmer seas increase evaporation , condense into cloud droplets, more snow in east BUT this only slows sea level rise by a tenth of a millimentre per tear  Increased westerly winds around the Southern Ocean, caused by climate change and ozone depletion are driving the seas northwards.  More rain and snow (due to evaporation) resulting from climate change are layering the Southern Ocean with a cooler, denser layer on top.  storms are also freshening the local water (it becomes less salty) thus raising the temperature needed for sea ice to form.  Increased melting of continental land ice creates more floating icebergs which contribute to sea ice formation. - The temperature of whole of Antarctica to rise by small amount over next 50 years - Antarctic sea ice reached a record low in February 20230 – 1.91 million km2

Answer 228

- Ph decline from increase in CO2 – poses threat to marine environments of Southern – ocean water may become corrosive to unprotected shells and exoskeletons of organism – disrupt food webs - warmer water also doesn't hold as much CO2- more in atmoshpere

Answer 229

Discover Antarctica in early 18th century, 1700s – devlopemnt of economic acitvies - Sealing o By 1800, all fur seals eradicated from South Georgia and South Shetland Islands - Whaling o Started in the early 1900s , useful in food, medicine, oil, baleen etc… o Southern ocean holds 80% of whales o Increased exploitation due to reduction in North Atlantic o Whaling in the southern ocean grew very quickly so that by 1910, it provided 50% of the world catch o By 1960s no longer commercial viable as whale population had decline by over 90% o 2.9 million whales were killed in the 20th century o Number of whales dropped significantly o 1986- Whaling Moratorium, by the International Whaling Convention – which banned commercial whaling, only for scientific purposes – which Japan and Norway continue to exploit

Answer 230

o Number of krill has dropped massively o Intensive fish farming  Nets gets left (long time to breakdown due to cold water- ,marine life killed by ingestion or becoming ensnared in nets))  massive waste  Boats bring invasive species on the hull of their ships – e.g. Mytilus bivalve o overfishing particularly by Russia and Japan for rock cod and krill o Between 1999 and 2010, tonnes of krill caught doubled o Krill products – oil capsules, fatty acids, supplements, protein etc.. – high value o Overfishing krill removes a major supply of food as it is low in the food chain o ASOC tries to control illegal fishing - Ross Ice Shelf conservation area – deadline is 2048- China and Russia want it opened for commercial fishing (growing populations, but declining domestic stock, so need fish from elsewhere)

Answer 231

- Known minerals – coal, oil, mangense, titanium , gold, silver - Hard to access – have to overcome hostile environment – under moving ice sheets and glaciers – expeive of extraction and transport would prevent any commercial operation - Never been commercial mining in Antarctica as it is banned by the ANtartic Treaty - No current plans to reverse this decision - BUT.. furtue demand for resources will put pressure on the vast mineral resrves on the continent - the Madrid Protocol, which protects Antarctica from exploitation until 2048. - Before Madrid Protocol – there were some mebers who attempted to formulate a new convention allowing mineral and gas reserves – prosposed convention on the regulation of antartic mineral resource activities was never ratfiedi… - Still feel this way?

Answer 232

- Antartic is home to a transient population of around 4000 scientists and their support staf in over 50 dispered coastal and interor research stations - These are run by other 30 nations - this global common represents a multinational laboratory of incalculable value, particularly for conducting research into climate change. o Ice cores which trap volcanic and desert dust, and ancient air- enables an abundance of information about past climatic conditions to be revealed and interpreted - Threat?- Scientific researchers working either in the interior near the South Pole or in coastal areas are well briefed about the need for care of the Antarctic environment, but any activity is bound to create some degree of disturbance to the environment and wildlife. - Impacts o Vehicle exhaust o Construction of buildings o Faiclites- fuel storage, runways o Disposal of watse- rope, fuel drums, plastics o All endanger lving organism

Answer 233

Tourism - Growth and trends o Advances in transport, tech and clothing have made it more accessible to tourists o Its physical isolation, unspoilt landscapes, remarkable widlfife – cpaitves people o Very expnsiev o Not mass tourism – but figures growing o In 1980s- less than 2000 a year, to 46 000 in 2007-8, 27 000 2011-12, 52 000 2017-18 o ‘Last Chance tourism’ – rush before restrcitons are made or it melst - Types o Seaborne via cruiseliners – don’t actuallys et foot o Airborne- sceinic flights over the contient, some time slanding  Due to the availability of flights to the Union Blue-Ice runway and also the Patriot Hills runway near the Ronne ice shelf, and by using smaller ships, there are opportunities for the most adventurous to land. - Acitvites and attractions o Glacial landscape o Wildlife o Helicopter flights o Paragliding o Skiing o Moutnainering o Diving o Kayaking o Vists to research statsion o Heritage sites – Scotts Base o Huts dating back from Scott and Shackleton epxediton – near McMurdo Sound

Answer 234

- Disturbance of an extremely fragile ecosystem can leave an imprint for a long time walking the same routes can create scars or paths - tourist season coincides with peak breeding season for most Antarctic wildlife - terns particularly disturbed by visitors and may abandon nests or vacate area completely - over flying by light planes or helicopters cause stress to breeding colonies of Penguins and birds - accidentally importing invasive alien species such as insects or seeds on boots clothes and ships etc (Mediterranean mussel) - oil spills from ships and boats - the possibility of impermanent land based tourism being developed - danger of collisions in some of the most dangerous waters on earth o for example in November 2007 the Canadian cruise ship Ms explorer struck ice near the South Shetland Islands and sank - no facilities

Answer 235

Mitigation, resilience and adaption arguments - Antarctic tourism is well governed with strict rules set by the IAATO and has sound record for environmental concern o Toursim orgained by tour operating ran by the International Association of ANTARTIO Tour Opperators (IAATO) who try to minise impact and maintina sustainabile toruism  No more than one ship at a time landing at any one site  No ships with more than 500 passengers are allowed to visit  Most ship 50-200 people  Groups must be led by a qualified guide  Toruism briefed on code of behaviour  Each site may onlybe visited ervy 3 to 4 days to minsie impacts and allow recovery o Regulations even require toilet waste to be borrowed and transported home - regulations are widely accepted by tour operators and tourists - visitors become ambassadors for Antarctica voicing for its preservation from development - visitors tend to be well educated and receptive to conserve conservation message which is reinforced by the tours - seals and Penguins seem to be resilient and have adapted to the friends of humans on land - Scott polar Research Institute findings show that to date tourism has had minimal overall impact - tour operators can only realistically touch a tiny proportion of antarctica's 14,000,000 kilometres squared of land and only 10 out of 200 landing sights shows signs of wear and tear - Antarctic tourism is financially exclusive and visitors are guiding small groups to voices various tourist litter is next table unlike the waste from scientific research stations

Answer 236

- See all above - But also o It is the last and largest unspoiled wilderness area on earth o It belongs to no-one and everyone o It is a continent for science- needed to understand the effects of global warming

Answer 237

Resilience gives an ecosystem the ability to recover from ‘shock’ events, disturbances or ongoing change, whether natural or caused by human activity o Endemic species are usually more resilient to shock events as they evolve strategies to allow their populations to rebuild. o For example, sealing, whaling and hunting penguins pushed species to the brink of extinction in the past. o Once these activities ceased, many species recovered and, in some cases, such as the king penguin, thrived. o However, there are concerns that if these shock events increase in frequency and magnitude, they could present more challenges to Antarctica; e.g. if climate change continues will it present an issue?

Answer 238

o The ability of an ecosystem to return to an equilibrium status is also linked to the adaptation of species to changing conditions. For example, some organisms may benefit, at least in the short term, from climate change. Many others will be vulnerable as their ability to adapt is slower and environmental change is taking place too quickly for them.

Answer 239

Need for mitigation - Mitigation is intervention by humans to eliminate or reduce the impacts presented by these threats. In the case of Antarctica, this requires governance of a continental land mass with agreements at a global level, so that mitigation efforts are effective.

Answer 240

- But had claims in the past by 7 ’claimant’ countries o Either by exploration history (UK, Norway) o Or being supra-adjacent nations (Chile, Argentina, France, Australia, and NZ) - USA never made a claim but reserves the rights to maintains research facilities , which under international law, is theoretically a basis to make a claim - Any nation's claim to sovereignty or ownership" is disputed by all others, but the areas assigned are recognised as research zones where the individual countries have established scientific bases.

Answer 241

- Recognized that disputed status needed ot be addressed - Scientist appeal to UN to establish an International Geophysical Year (IGY) to promite scientific corporation. - Scientists from 12 countries with already established scientific research stations worked cooperatively on a multinational research programme, which was a great success.

Answer 242

The success of the IGY led to the 12 nations involved (the seven ‘claimants’ plus Belgium, Japan, South Africa, Soviet Union and USA) resolving the issue by signing the Antarctic Treaty (AT). - Lack of sovereignty is why the AT is so important - Drafted against background of Cold War politics in 1959 , ratified by the 12 ogrinal member nations – came into force in June 1961 Purpose - Formalized the notion that Antarctica (Antarctica and the surrounding ocean up to 60°S ) does belong to any single nation Scope of the AT - The Treaty o Antarctica must only be used for peaceful purpose- milairty activies banned o Guarantees continued freedom to conduct scientif research o Promotes international scietnic co operation – exchange of research plans and personnel and sharinf of research results o Freezes any claims to soverigntiy for the DURATION of the treatu and prohibits any new or enlarged claims o Prhitbsi nuclear expolsin and disposal of radioactive waste o allows ships, stations and equipment to be inspected by observers to ensure compliance o requires parties to give advance notice of their expeditions o includes a dispute settlement procedure and a review mechanism by which the treaty can be modified. - Members of the AT committed to operate on a consensus basis, regardless of size or status; thus, the superpowers of the time, the Soviet Union (Russia) and USA, had to work on an equal footing with others, such as Belgium, New Zealand and South Africa. Other nations were allowed to become signatories to the AT but to be able to vote had to demonstrate ‘substantial scientific activity’, such as establishing a research station in Antarctica. Systems for inspection and enforcement

Answer 243

UN - Established IGY- success - Other than facilitating and supporting the concept of the treaty, UN ahd little involment in the early governance - Responsibility was devolved to AT members - But by 1980s o Increasing international pressure for access to ANtarticc reousrces o China and India (AT signatories)- wanted resources control in Antartica o Some members wanted to negoriagte management of fisheries o A Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities was proposed in 1988 that would have allowed exploration for minerals (not ratified) o Countries in the Global South complained to UN General Council that a small group were trying to exploit resources in an area of 'common heritage' , which led to further protection and development of the wider Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) with added agreements UNEP - United National Environment Program - - reports on Antarctica activity to CCALMR

Answer 244

Purpose and Scope - ATS manged by annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative parties – 12 member states and 16 ‘consultative parties’ - ATS includes other organisation – NGOs and scientific institution – influence decision making process (interactions at all scales) - The ATS includes the AT at its core, together with a number of additional agreements: o the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid, 1991) (see below) o two separate conventions dealing with the conservation of Antarctic seals o the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). - To date, 52 countries have signed up to the ATS and membership continues to grow. System of inspection and enforcement - Poor inspection and enforcement o All personnel present on Antarctica are citizens of a nation outside of Antarctica and under that nation’s jurisdiction, so there is no single unifying ‘legal system’. o Prosecutions against treaty rules are the responsibility of individual nation states through the ATCM.

Answer 245

- The mining convention had been agreed between ATS signatories and guaranteed fair and clean exploitation - BUT- many NGOs were aware of the risk of accidental and drastic consequences for the fragile environment - With the help of influential conservationist including Captain Jacques -Yves Coustea (individual scale) and public support globally – a proposal was made to replace the convention with a protocol aimed at truly proetcing the environment o Many AT members (France, Australia and many AT countries did not like the mining convention and also express the need for environmental porection) Purpose and scope - The protocol o designates Antarctica as a ‘natural reserve, devoted to peace and science’ o establishes environmental principles for the conduct of all activities o prohibits mining or mineral resource exploration including exploration of the continental shelf o established a Committee for Environmental Protection o requires operators to develop contingency plans to respond to environmental emergencies o requires that waste of all kinds be returned to the country of origin wherever possible. o Promote monitoring to minimise human impacts on Antarctica’s fragile ecosystems. - The ban on mining can only be modified if all parties agree. - Otherwise, the next review of the mining prohibition is due in 2048. - This means any modifications to the prohibition are unlikely beforehand and only then if 75 per cent of the consultative parties agree. Systems of inspection and enforcement - Better system for inspection and enforcement o Observers are now designated by the ATCM. Environmental audits are carried out around scientific bases, on land and in the sea to assess the impact that bases and their activities are having on the surrounding area o their activities are having on the surrounding area o The scope of inspections under the Protocol includes inspection of stations, ships, aircraft and loading areas, unfortunately with a lesser focus on maritime areas, which are equally important. Any new activities by operators are subject to environmental impact assessments

Answer 246

Purpose - CAMLR was established by international convention in 1982 with the specific objective of conserving Antarctic marine life. - This was in response to overexploitation in the Southern Ocean throughout the 1960s and 1970s, such as rock cod, and increasing commercial interest in Antarctic krill resources -a keystone component of the Antarctic ecosystem Scope - Specific achievements of CCAMLR include: o * challenging illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing o * establishing the world's first high seas Marine Protected Area o (MPA) — the South Orkney Islands Southern Shelf Marine Protected Area which covers 94 000 km of the Southern Atlantic Ocean o * reducing seabird mortality (arising from fishing operations) from thousands of birds annually to almost zero within those fisheries that are regulated o * establishing the CCAMLR Ecosystem Monitoring Programme (CEMP) to detect and record significant changes in critical components of the marine ecosystem.  This serves as a basis for the conservation of Antarctic marine-living resources and distinguishes between changes due to the harvesting of commercial species and changes due to environmental variability (both physical and biological) o managing vulnerable marine ecosystems (VMEs) such as seamounts, hydrothermal vents and cold water corals by regulating bottom fishing on the high seas Systems for inspection and enforcement

Answer 247

Purpose - The IWC is the global body responsible for the conservation of whales and the management of whaling activities. - It was established in 1946 to provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and the sustainable development of the whaling industry - First met in 1949- for many years had little success as an organisation , however falling profits in whaling did succeed in driving many companies out of the whaling business o For effective in 1960s when blue and humpback whales were fully protected – protection extended to fin and sei whales in the 1970s and then 1986 ban on commercial whaling Scope - Whaling Convention measures o provide complete protection of certain whale species o designate specified areas as whale sanctuaries o establish limits on the numbers and size of whales which may be taken o prescribe open and closed seasons and areas for whaling o prohibit the capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied by calves o require catch reports and other statistical and biological records. - The International Whaling Moratorium - In 1982, the IWC decided that there should be a suspension of commercial whaling on all stocks from 1986 onwards. o Yet…Japan continued to evade the moratorium by ‘special permit’ whaling which enabled them to exploit a loophole in the IWC regulations that permitted whaling for ‘scientific research’ in the Southern Ocean. (Japan stated that the purpose of its ‘research whaling’ was to monitor stocks to pave the way for the resumption of commercial whaling.) - 1994 o The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary was designed by the International Whaling Commission. -an area of 50 million km2 , where all commercial whaling is banned, though Japan continued its ‘research whaling’ there. 23 members supported it, but Japan opposed it. - 2018 o In 2018, IWC members met in Florianopolis, Brazil and rejected a proposal by Japan to remove the moratorium on commercial whaling. o As a result of the discussions, the ‘Florianopolis Declaration’ concluded that the moratorium would continue in perpetuity to allow the recovery of whale populations to pre-industrial whaling levels. o This led to Japan withdrawing its membership of the IWC to resume commercial whaling within its own territorial waters and EEZ. - Now - China and Russia are both in favour of greater exploitation of fishing resources and in 2018, together with Norway, blocked plans for an even larger MPA in the Weddell Sea. Other parties want to see more protected areas - There are some indications that the whale populations are recovering but such long lived species with low reproductive rates will take a long time to fully recover Systems for inspection and enforcement - It is a voluntary organisation with no authority to enforce its decisions and agreements. - Japan still exploiting whales o In 2014, the International Court of Justice ruled that Japan’s whaling fleet had, in effect, used ‘research whaling’ as a cover for commercial whaling.

Answer 248

Importance of NGOs in decision making - Their ability to influence proceedings is enhanced because they have no sovereign national agenda and they can act as: o guardians – to monitor and challenge the decision making of ATS members and promote alternatives.  For example, ASOC, with strong involvement from Greenpeace, was successful in campaigning to block the Minerals Convention and instrumental in the development of the Madrid Protocol o technical advisers – to make use of their expertise to gain acceptance and influence decisions made by ATS members.  For example, ASOC’s advice to adopt an ‘ecosystem approach’ to management of fisheries was embedded into ATS conservation strategies o partners – to work with ATS members and other bodies to designate areas of protection.  NGO groups worked with CCAMLR to establish the Ross Sea Marine Protected Area, from 2012 until it came into being in 2017.  The Ross Sea MPA is the largest in the world, covering 1.55 million km2 (1.12 million km2 is fully protected) and will remain protected for 35 years o visionaries – to formulate long-term and large-scale strategies.  For example, ASOC’s goal is to establish a network of MPAs, including the adoption of the proposed Weddell Sea, Antarctic Peninsula and East Antarctica MPAs.  During negotiations over the Minerals Convention, Greenpeace’s vision was the creation of a ‘World Park Antarctica’ that would ensure the entire continent is ‘off limits’ for any type of resource exploitation or development - Champion causes, contribute independent perspectives, rally public support – social media and provoke action Greenpeace – radical and apply pressure for policy change via positive action WWF- scientific focused groups tackle similar issues but believe in developing constructive relationship with companies On a smaller scale – scientist, naturalists, resource specialists and informed, interest citizen

Answer 249

- It is an umbrella organisation that includes government and NGO bodies - A respected knowledge-based coalition of expert groups - Shares advocacy on some issues but primary role is to provide advice on conservation issues - Has had ‘invited expert’ status since 1987 and was first NGO to gain formal observer status on the full ATCM - Offers expertise but not a decision maker

Answer 250

ASOC- Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition - Founded in 1978  Coalition of over 20 NGOs interested in the protection of the Antarctic environment, including Friends of the Earth, the Pew Charitable Trusts, Greenpeace and WWF. ASOC members pursue their own individual organisational Antarctic work, in addition to working collectively through the coalition  In 1991, ASOC was formally recognised as the unified voice for the NGO community, advocating for strong environmental protection in Antarctica. - The only NGO group that dedicates all its time to Antarctica and the Southern Ocean Monitoring - ASOC wants to see ATS members doing more to manage human activities - Campaigns for the regulation of tourism. Enhancing protection - Successfully blocked mining convention - Helped to establish the partner Antarctic Ocean Alliance (AOA) that was instrumental in supporting CCAMLR to establish the Ross Sea Marine Protected Area (MPA) - ASOC wants to see ATS members doing more to protect biodiversity, including by establishing more terrestrial and marine protected area Disadvantages:  rely on people to give money

Answer 251

- The original Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) had an important clause inserted allowing any dissatisfied country to call for a review conference after 30 years - none did. - Even today, over 50 years later, the Treaty has prevailed with no major problems. - Each party has enjoyed peaceful cooperation and freedom of scientific research - and that research has contributed significantly to the protection of the global environment and our knowledge of the Earth. - Tensions concerning territorial claims have been suspended and as a disarmament measure it has been effective. - The involvement of the UN and ATS member countries, with the underlying influence of NGOs, demonstrates how governance of a ‘global common’ area has been integrated effectively. - recognised as one of the most successful sets of international agreements, setting an example of peaceful cooperation for the rest of the world

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- However, protecting Antarctica is not easy and there are still issues to be resolved concerning its future governance - the decision-making that takes place within the ATS can be problematic. o Decision-making by consensus does not mean that everyone must agree, but that no one can voice disagreement. o So one country, if it feels strongly about an issue, can stop a resolution from going forward (this is true for many similar international bodies). o Much is agreed and achieved, albeit not always quickly because the consensus-based decision-making process can often be slow to produce results. - Poor system for inspection and enforcement o No legal penalties for violating agreements, so most parties are essentially on their honour to abide by their obligations - whether this is under the ATS, the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection or CCAMLR. o Relies on mutual trust  Mutual trust clearly works in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean, and coupled with the expertise, lobbying and prompting of NGOs

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- Duration of agreements – The Environment Protocol underpinning the ATS system could be reviewed in 2048 and could be modified, as could the Ross Sea MPA in 2052. - Territorial claims – The ATS has not rejected any existing claim, but it prohibits their assertion as well as the establishment of new claims. None of the seven ‘claimant nations’ have renounced their claim; the USA and Russia also maintain the ‘right’ to lay claims. o Geopolitics of Antarctica –  Pro-conservation ‘claimants’, such as Australia, are concerned that China and Russia are trying to increase their claims to territory.  In 2009, China established its third research station at Dome Argus on the Antarctic plateau. - Impacts of human activity – The increasing footprint from scientific activity, tourism and fishing does not help environmental protection. - Marine Protection Areas (MPAs) – In the next 10 years, to meet UNEP global biodiversity goals, attempts to establish additional MPAs are likely to lead to disagreement between those ATS parties wanting to extend marine protection and those, such as China and Russia, who want greater access to fisheries. o In 2018, these nations, together with Norway, blocked a proposal for the Weddell Sea MPA plan.

Answer 254

- Climate change – Antarctica is an essential area for research that will help us to understand and address climate change. In the short term, scientists can do little to prevent land glaciers melting and oceans becoming warmer, which makes confronting some of the other issues, such as MPAs, more complex. Will Madrdi POrtocol be extened? CC? Will it speed up? Fishing/whaling- Japan? Tourism- increasing still? Or restricted?

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- The governance of Antarctica continues to prevail but relies on political compromises. - It cannot be assumed that Antarctica will be protected forever, especially if some of the more powerful members, such as China or the USA, adopt a more nationalist approach and start to question whether Antarctica needs to be protected

Answer 256

 Student’s lives o GG of climate change->>>Southern oceans become warmer and cannot hold as much dissolved CO2,- a bad job of cooperation? - more atmospheric CO2 o Global governance of Antarctica -> o Not a day-to-day impact o Eat fish – krill – price of fish- how much is available to you o Future careers affected – job availability. o Scientific research -> we wouldn’t know a lot of CC info without it o 82 Research stations o Give us info about CC – we are living in the generation who will see the greatest interest in climate change. o Restrictions of tourism o Entertainment because of documentaries

Answer 257

 Other people’s lives o Madrid protocol will end in 2048 o Rising demand for resources o Scientists and their jobs – economic o Fishing industry o Iceland – a lot of them didn’t’ agree with whaling – political divide and conflict o Tourism and tourist industry and associated jobs o ASOC – limiting time of boat you can go in. Noise level has an impact on wildlife

Answer 258

For LDEs - Globalisation has increased levels of investment and has made it easier for countries to attract short and long term investment.->Investment in LDCs reduces poverty - Raised education and income allows focus on environmental issues in LICs - TNCs create jobs and stimulate growth o TNCs help to redistribute wealth around the world and have lifted millions out of a subsistence living - LDC economies are growing more quickly and there is less inequality between countries - The Internet (a product of globalisation) o Supported enterprise – rise of mobile banking in Kenya or the practice of microlending or technological leapfrogging in Uganda - Spread of environmentally friendly tech and practices from developed to developing – this can reduce pollution – developing better environmental regulations and standards - Greater access to markets

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- developed rapidly and have emerged as major economic powers, competing with developed regions of the world- via FDI and outsourcing of production by TNCs - this investment is reducing inequalities between countries ( TNCs pay 40% higher wage stahn local firms) – multiplier effect- increased disposable income - improved education and health - E.G. MINT countries are growing rapidly: Mexico 4% annual growth, Nigeria 5.8%, Indonesia 5.9% and Turkey 4%. In 2015, the top 10 fastest growing economies were all in Asia or Africa.

Answer 260

For HDEs - Free trade allows specialisation of the production of goods so prices are lower for consumers, there is greater choice, export markets are large and there is greater competition.-> Cheap imports have lowered consumer goods prices – multiplier effect - Growth in international economic migration offers bilateral benefits for some nations, for example, migrants from the Philippines working in the UAE. For TNCs - TNCs can access cheaper raw materials and can create economies of scale All - Competition between countries helps to drive prices down- drives innovation. More goods and services are made available to more people, often at lower prices.

Answer 261

For LDEs - Free trade removes barriers and give more access to LDCs For HDEs All - Nations can work together more cooperatively to tackle global environmental issues such as CC - Interconnected decision making and greater sharing of information leads to a global politics that benefits all. o NGOs- Greenpeace and WWF- spread awareness of issues and some solution - Flows of information- a globalised society boosts the rate at which people are exposed to the culture, values and attitudes of people in other countries-> leads to greater tolerance and understanding - Increased awareness of global / integration of news can be positive – address CC , encourage change in lifestyle, people better informed about human and natural disaster – encourage NGO donations

Answer 262

LDEs - Remittances- stable income All - Integration of cultures leads to greater cultural understanding and reduces conflict - Global governance has meant greater sharing of information and more political integration, so arguably the world is a safer place – more stable - More co-operation demonstrated in response to global crises and hazard events o Despite wars in, for example. Syria, war deaths are declining at a rapid pace. o The world is much more peaceful and inclusive - in short, a safer place

Answer 263

- Inequality of income and opportunities within countries has increased (except for Latin America) o The richest 20 per cent of the world's population consumes 86 per cent of the world's resources while the poorest 50 per cent consumes just 14 per cent. o The gap between richest and poorest countries is widening and Inequality within many countries is increasing o Rurual-urban disparities - Differential access to trade o LDCs still disadvantage to access to trade – barrier still exist to protect richer nations -> 61 countries have VATs on imports o Emerging countries cannot compete with developed markets o Countries manipulate their currency to obtain a price advantage – 20 countries have down this - Issues with TNCs o TNCs are increasingly influencing political decision-making to service self- interests , at the expense of governments and citizens -> exploit the fragilities of weaker governments and legal frameworks of LDEs to their own advantage  e.g Lome Convention o TNCs can exploit resources, workforce etc…  Workers in LDEs may be treated differently to counterparts elsewhere- e.g. longer hours and poorer working conditions o Repatriation of profits – e.g. 90% of the cost of bananas stay in the ‘north’. - Issues of International organisations – e.g. IMF enforced spednign cuts o Governments of HDEs have more influence in international organisations All - Due to free trade and economic interdependence – there is a risk of an economic shock in one country quickly spreading to another- when American sneezes we all catch a cold o e.g. the collapse of lending in the American sub-prime housing market triggered the 2008-09 global financial crisis o creates a lack of trade – leads to job losses and decline in living standards For HDEs - The transfer of manufacturing jobs from HDEs to lower cost economies causes unemployment, wage stagnation and related social problems of deprivation in some areas in HDEs. In communities experiencing this decline, there may be a feeling of neglect.

Answer 264

- Increasing international migration can lead to social and cultural conflict and the rise of extremist political groups o Pressure on housing and social services - Standardisation of goods and services can lead to cultural homogeny and a global monoculture – damage to individual cultures / cultural dilution o Reaction to inequality and injustice and loss of cultural identity can lead to extremist ideologies, which are more easily spread by internet, etc - The rise of consumerism as a way of life can mean people become more interested in things rather than people in their community and leads to environmental degradation - Flows of information – lead to negative ideas such as terrorism - Global trade in military hardware remains big business, for example in 2017 the Us signed a US 110 bn arms sale to Saudi Arabia. - In an argument mirrored elsewhere in Europe, for example by the National Front party in France, such discrimination against the poor was argued as creating a Two Nations' syndrome.

Answer 265

o The recognition or perception that globalisation has failed to be inclusive has led to the rise of ‘populist’ movements, which reject existing political establishments, especially in some more developed countries. o the UK electorate deciding to leave the European Union, a process later entitled ‘Brexit’  rejected greater integration and the globalisation process  Why? * Sovereignty – the leave campaign used ‘take back control’ to persuade voter that the UK had lost the power to makes it own decision on legal matters or to negotiate it s own trade deals * Immigration- nearly 1 million East European migrants had entered the UK since 2004- pressure on jobs, services etc. * Inequality- widening gap between rich and poor (Gini Coefficient increased from 0.27 (1973) (when it joined EU) to 0.35 in 2016 o Communities felt left behind due to deindustrialising and blamed EU for this o Globalisation failed ot be inclusive * Pro -nationalistic feelings- Some of the UK electorate prefer the idea of an independent Britain making its own future in the world. * Left 31st January 2020  Yet - Leave supporters argue that Brexit is not an ‘antiglobalisation’ vote and that it gives the UK the opportunity to trade more globally without the constraints of being a member of a customs union

Answer 266

 Nov 2016 was elcted – promise of more portecionist polices and jobs  Removal of the US from TPP  Rhetoric about building a wall between USA and Mexico to prevent illegal imgration  Encourgament of US car manufacturers to build new factories in the USA rathr the in Mexico  Withdrew US from Paris Agreement  Increase in tariffs on imported manufactured good from Chian and others in attempt to stimulate traditional manufatcring regions in the US  However, since taking office in 2021, newly-elected President Biden has signalled an intent to reverse many of the Trump policies as his administration adopts a more ‘internationalist’ approach

Answer 267

- TNC investment in LDCs to develop resource or manufacturing is not always environmentally sound or sustainable o More transport – GG emissions o TNCs outsource to country where environmental standards are less strict o Spread of invasive species and diseases- due to greater movement – e.g. COVID o Less species diversity as many global products are standardised o More waste from packaging o Depletion of non – renewable resources - Trying to achieve global action on CC is difficult o Trump withdrew from the Paris Agreement

Answer 268

- We are in a new geographic era - Erosion of state power -Nation state is no longer important - Instead, there is a single global market supported by transnational networks of production, trade and finance - Believe in supra-level governments – trading blocs - See globalisation as victory of capitalism over socialism - Believe that glbalisatio is leading to the spread of iberal democracy - But that globalisation also leads to homogeneity of culture – americanisation of the world However? - 9/11 and 2007-8 financial crisis and COVID involved national governments suggest the nation state is not yet dead

Answer 269

- Believe globalisation is not new - We are just as integrated as we were in the 19th century - If hyperglobalists were correct , they would be uninterrupted flows of labour, trade and capital- yet labour is restricted and protectionist policies limit free trade - Believe national governments are still the most important players o For example, rise of China, India and Iran due to government polices - Trading blocs promote regionalism rather than globalisation - Take than stance that hypoerglobalists are only interest in increasing their market share in the new global economy – could lead to amrginlisaiton of the ppor - the sceptics view is that cultural heterogeneity will continue although homogeneity of culture may occur within a single nation such as China or Iran

Answer 270

- Lie in between the other two - Globalisation is real and it is changing society - See it as an extension of colonial relations - They do believe that the role national governments is changing rather than being made redundant. o According to transformationalists, the state is also actively engaged is own economic and cultural issues, which produces diversity and increased unevenness o There is therefore more differentiation in global society politics and economies - Politically, nation states have to take account international and supranational bodies, such as the European Parliament - Economically, production, trade and finance are interlinked in global networks