globalisation, green crime, human rights, and state crime

Question 1

Held et al

Answer 1

there has been an increasing interconnectedness of crime across national borders

Question 2

supply and demand

Answer 2

the global crime economy has a ‘supply side’ (drugs, sex workers, and goods) and a ‘demand side’ (rich West)

supply is linked to globalisation - drug-producing companies like Peru can make money from trade

Question 3

Taylor

Answer 3

globalisation has led to changes in the pattern and extent of crime - creating more inequality and increasing crime

Question 4

globalisation, capitalism, and crime

Answer 4

• transnational companies can manufacture in developing countries, creating job insecurity and poverty
• social cohesion is undermined by marketisation, which causes people to see themselves as individual consumers who calculate the costs/benefits of each action
• a lack of legitimate jobs drives the unemployed to look for illegal opportunities, like the lucrative drugs trade

Question 5

AO3 of Taylor

Answer 5

doesn’t explain how inequality leads to crime as not every poor person does

Question 6

Castells

Answer 6

there’s a global criminal economy worth £1trillion a year that takes several forms

1. arms trafficking
2. trafficking nuclear materials
3. smuggling illegal immigrants
4. trafficking women and children for prostitution
5. sex tourism
6. trafficking body parts
7. cyber crimes
8. green crimes
9. international tourism
10. smuggling of legal goods to avoid tax
11. trafficking artefacts/endangered species
12. the drugs trade
13. money laundering

Question 7

global risk consciousness

Answer 7

risk is seen as global, not tied to certain places

EXAMPLE: increased movement of people (economic migrants/asylum seekers) has worried western populations about the risk of crime (impacted by the media/moral panics)

Question 8

Hobbs and Dunningham

Answer 8

the way crime is organised is linked to economic changes caused by globalisation, involving individuals with contacts that create a loose network of people seeking both legitimate and illegitimate opportunities

Question 9

‘glocal’ organisation

Answer 9

crime is rooted in a local context, but has international links, such as drug trades

Question 10

McMafia

Answer 10

Glenny - used this term to refer to post-communism organisations that gained wealth, after the deregulation of most sectors, by buying diamonds and oil for cheap and selling them on for astronomical prices

Question 11

Rothe and Friedrichs

Answer 11

bodies, such as banks, impose capitalist ‘structural adjustment programmes’ on poorer countries, cutting down health and education services

this allowed western corporations to expand into developing countries, causing mass unemployment in places like Rwanda

Question 12

South

Answer 12

differentiates between primary and secondary green crime

Question 13

primary green crime

Answer 13

the direct result of destroying the earth’s resources

1. air pollution
2. deforestation
3. decline in species
4. water pollution

Question 14

secondary green crime

Answer 14

flouting the rules that aim to regulate or prevent environmental disasters

1. state violence against oppositional groups (i.e., France blowing up the Greenpeace ship in New Zealand that was there to stop France testing nuclear weapons in the South Pacific)
2. hazardous waste and organised crime (i.e., Eco-mafias in Italy dumping illegal waste because it is cheaper, making profit)

Question 15

global risk society and the environment

Answer 15

crimes such as Chernobyl show us how threats to humans and nature are often man-made instead of natural

Question 16

Mozambique

Answer 16

the man-made 2010 heatwave that destroyed crops in Russia forced them to ban exports, and so the world price of grain went up

Mozambique - the price of bread rose by 30%, which caused riots and looting, leading to deaths

Question 17

traditional criminology

Answer 17

not concerned with green crime because it doesn’t usually go against the law

Question 18

AO3 of green criminology

Answer 18

they accept definitions of crime from powerful groups (international regulators) who serve their own interests

Question 19

White

Answer 19

green criminology - the subject of criminology should include what harms the physical environment, whether it breaks the law or not

there are two views of harm:
1. anthropocentric - nation-states assume humans have the right to dominate nature
2. ecocentric - humans and the environment are interdependent, meaning environmental harm also harms us

Question 20

AO3 of green criminology

Answer 20

focusing on harms over the law makes it harder to distinguish between what is green crime and what isn’t, political/moral statements should be made to address this

Question 21

Green and Ward

Answer 21

state crime = illegal or deviant activities perpetuated by or with the complicity of state agencies

it is serious because:

1. the scale of state crime - the state’s power can harm on a huge scale (i.e., 262M were murdered by governments in the 20th century)
2. the state is the source of law - the state can conceal crimes and evade punishment

Question 22

McLaughlin

Answer 22

there are 4 types of state crime

1. political (corruption)
2. crimes by the police or security (genocide)
3. economic (violations of laws)
4. social and cultural (institutional racism)

Question 23

state crime case study: genocide in Rwanda

Answer 23

their Hutu president being shot down triggered 800,000 Tutsis people being slaughtered in 100 days

Question 24

war crimes

Answer 24

1. illegal wars
2. crimes committed during or in the aftermath of war (i.e., torturing prisoners)

Question 25

Kramer and Michalowski

Answer 25

1. state-initiated corporate crime = states initiating, directing, or approving corporate crime (i.e., NASA's cost-cutting causing the Challenger disaster) 2. state-facilitated corporate crime = states failing to regulate or control corporate behaviour (i.e., BP oil spills)

Question 26

domestic law definition of state crime

Answer 26

illegal acts by state officials while doing their jobs

Question 27

AO3 of domestic law definition of state crime

Answer 27

The state makes the laws, so it can avoid calling its own actions criminal.

Question 28

Hillyard et al

Answer 28

zemiology best describes state crime because it focuses on both harm and law-breaking

Question 29

AO3 of Hillyard et al / zemiology

Answer 29

'harm' is not clearly defined

Question 30

labelling theory

Answer 30

'state crime' is a social construct

Question 31

AO3 of labelling theory

Answer 31

they are unclear about who constructs the idea of state crime and whether or not they can be manipulated by the state

Question 32

Rothe and Mullins

Answer 32

state crime is any action by or on behalf of the state that violates international law

Question 33

AO3 of Rothe and Mullins

Answer 33

focus on war crimes and crimes against humanity and not corruption

Question 34

human rights

Answer 34

1. natural rights = what we have simply by existing (i.e., freedom of speech) 2. civil rights = to vote, to privacy, to fair trial, etc state crime is a violation of human rights

Question 35

AO3 of human rights as a definition for state crime

Answer 35

different opinions on what human rights are

Question 36

explaining state crime

Answer 36

1. the authoritarian personality 2. crimes of obedience 3. modernity 4. the culture of denial

Question 37

the authoritarian personality

Answer 37

Adorno - people obey authority without question this is why soldiers and the police force carry out crime on behalf of the state

Question 38

crimes of obedience

Answer 38

state crimes are people obeying authority, such as taking a bribe to stay loyal to the unit

Question 39

Kelman and Hamilton

Answer 39

3 steps to obedience 1. authorisation (told by someone in power to do it) 2. routinisation (crime becomes part of the daily job) 3. dehumanisation (victims are seen as subhuman so morals don't apply)

Question 40

Bauman

Answer 40

division of labour, bureaucracy, rationality, and technology worked together as parts of modern society to make state crimes like the Holocaust possible

Question 41

AO3 of Bauman

Answer 41

some genocide doesn't need an organised structure

Question 42

culture of denial and state crime

Answer 42

CoD = How states deny or justify human rights abuses instead of admitting guilt Cohen - states deny victims, injuries, and responsibility + condemn critics + appeal to higher loyalty