glossary Flashcards
(353 cards)
1
Q
accent
A
the way that people pronounce words
2
Q
accent variation
A
the way that pronunciations vary between different speakers, or the variation a single speaker might pronounce in different contexts
3
Q
acrolect
A
a term used to refer to a standard or official language variety in context where creole is spoken
4
Q
acronym
A
initials that can be pronounced as words
5
Q
active voice
A
this is when the person or thing doing the action specified by the verb is the subject of the sentence
6
Q
adjacency
A
the positioning of elements in an interaction,so that one follows on from another, although they don’t have to occur immediately afterwards. elements in an adjacency relationship don’t often occur in adjacency pairs
7
Q
adjective
A
give more information about nouns
8
Q
adverbs
A
give more information about verbs
9
Q
affordances
A
things that are made possible. ( example- a website can be read by many people simultaneously)
10
Q
aesthetic
A
how the sounds and appearance of words have an immediate sensory effector quality
11
Q
agent
A
an alternative for the subject in a sentence
12
Q
alliteration
A
the repetition of consonant sounds in a text, often at the beginning of words
13
Q
allusion
A
an indirect reference to something else-could also be inter textual in nature
14
Q
amelioration
A
a process whereby a word or phrase develops more positive connotations
15
Q
analogy
A
explaining something in terms of something else
16
Q
antithesis
A
when ideas contrast or oppose one another;a semantic contrast in a text. often used in reasoned argue nets or to create emphasised contrast
17
Q
anthropomorphism
A
imposing human qualities in the animals and objects around us
18
Q
arbitrary
A
having no real connection beyond that of social convention
19
Q
archaism
A
a word that over time has fallen out of common usage
20
Q
definite article
A
the
21
Q
indefinite article
A
a or an
22
Q
aspect
A
refers to the way in which certain grammatical markings on verbs forms indicate whether an action or state is ongoing
23
Q
assonance
A
the repetition of vowel sounds. can create rhyme
24
Q
asymmetrical
A
unequal
25
audience construction
in a language study, texts are seen as constructing audiences, not just addressing them. this means that texts create an idea of who the audience is by ‘speaking’ to them in a certain way
26
auxiliary verb
these are verbs that verbs that help other verbs and include the verbs ‘be’ ‘do’ and ‘have’
27
basilect
a term used to refer to an informal language variety in contexts where creole is spoken
28
behaviourism
within studies of language acquisition, a notion of learned behaviour as a set of responses to stimuli
29
binary opposites
elements of a text that hold opposite ends of a notional scale
30
portmanteau(blending)
using parts of existing words to form a new word
31
borrowing
using parts of existing words to form a new word
32
bound morpheme
a morpheme that does not exist as an independent word but adds meaning to a free morphology
33
british black language
a wide ranging label but often referring to a variety used by some speakers wishing the caribbean community in the uk
34
broadening
a process by which words acquire a broader reference
35
case study
an in depth study of a single context that can be used to offer insights for further studies or other cases
36
categorical overextension
inappropriately extended i g the meaning of a label to other member in the same category
37
child directed speech
the speech that parents and caregivers use with children
38
chronological
structured with reference to time
39
citation
a reference to an example of language use or research
40
clause
clauses are grammatical units and can be main clauses which stand on their own or subordinate clauses which cannot stand alone but have accompany main clauses. a main clause gives information about people or things and their states or actions
41
clause of condition
a clause introduced by conjunctions such as ‘if’ or ‘unless’ suggesting that something will happen only if certain conditions are met
42
clipping
colloquial omission of parts of words to create a more casual alternative
43
code mixing
the inclusion of words
and phrases from one language in another
44
code switching
switching between different language in a sustained way
45
cognitive
this refers to thinking processes in the brain
46
cohesion
the way sentences or utterances john together to form a whole text
47
collocation
the regular occurrence of a word or phrase alongside others
48
colloquial
colloquial expressions are items of everyday language used in informal situations
49
community of practice
a group of people who share understandings, perspectives, and form of language use a result of meeting regularly over time
50
complaint tradition
a tradition of complaining about the state of a language
51
complex sentence
a sentence involving at least one main or independent clause and a subordinate clause
52
compounding
adding two existing words together to create a new word
53
compound sentence
two main clauses joined by a connective
54
comprehension
apt he ability to under language which might differ from how much an individual can produce
55
computer mediated communication
human communication that takes place via the medium of computers
56
concordance line
a line of text from a corpus, showing where the searched item occurred within s sentence or utterance
57
connective (conjunction )
a word that joins elements together such as ‘and’ and ‘or’
58
connotation
the associations we have for a word or phrase
59
consonance
the repetition of double consonants in the middle of words
60
constructed dialogue
dialogue that is artificially created rather than occurring naturally
61
construction (usage-based approach)
in language acquisition, constructions are ready-made chunks of language that can be used productively to express many ideas
62
convergence
in a language study changing one’s language to move forwards that of another individual
63
conversation analysis
a field of analysis devised by the sociologist harvey sacks on the routines that occur in spoken language
64
co-operative principle
an idea from the philosopher h.p. grace that in conversations, speakers expect others to share certain basic rules of co-operation such as telling the truth
65
co-ordination
joining elements together by using a co-ordination conjunction
66
corpus (plural=corpora)
a collection of searchable language data stored on the computer
67
covert prestige
status gained from peer group recognition, rather than public acknowledgment
68
creole
a language variety that has developed from a ‘pidgin’ or trade language to become a stable language used by speakers as their mother tongue
69
critical discourse analysis
a type of text analysis that tried to reveal the power structures that are maintained in society through the discourses used
70
critique
a critical analysis that pays attention to all aspects of a text or topic, seeing different perspectives
71
declarative
a clause or sentence that has a statement function
72
diclinism
the idea that language is in a constant decline
73
deficit model
an assumption that something is lacking or deficient
74
deixis
the act of pointing to something by using certain language item s
75
denotation
the literal meaning of words
76
density
in the studies of social networks, density refers to the number of connections that people have
77
descriptivism
the belief that correctness is dependent on context and should be defined by what is appropriate in any context. descriptivists take their norms from observing what the majority of people do, now what any particular authority says they should do
78
determiner
helps to determine what a noun refers to
79
determinism
the idea that language determines the way we think and behave
80
diachronic variation
variation through time
81
dialect
a style of language used within a particular geographical region
82
dialect levelling
the way in which dialect terms have been dropping out of use
83
dialect levelling
the way in which dialect terms have been dropping out of use
84
diaspora
the dispersal of people (and their languages) to different parts of the world
85
directed writing
a writing activity where you are asked to write about a specific brief, rather than inventing your own
86
discourse
a stretch of language(spoken,written or mulitmodal) considered in its own context of use. the plural use of the term -discourses- refers to repeated ways of talking or writhing about a topic
87
discourse community
an alternative term for a community of practise
88
discourse structure
the internal structure of a text
89
disjunct
an adverb that expresses a writer’s or speaker’s attitude
90
distribution
where a feature is used, within the language inventory of an individual or group
91
divergence
in a language study, changing one’s language in order in order to move away from that one one individual
92
dysphemistic
a direct form of language that doesn’t attempt to disguise sensitive or difficult topics
93
elaborated code
an idea advanced by bernstein (and much disputed) that middle class speaker use context free complex forms of language
94
ellipsis
when parts of a written structure are missing. in texts they are indicated by three full stops in a row
95
emoticon
a blend word consisting of ‘emotion’ and ‘icon’ which refers to symbols that express the attitude of a writer in digital contexts where non verbal elements are missing
96
endearment
a term used to address someone without using the using name
97
endonormative
looking within the immediate community for the norms of language use
98
english as lingua franca
the role of english as a bridging language in interactions where it is not everyone’s first language
99
english as an additional language
the use of english where it is not the person’s first language used
100
epizeuxis
spoken repetition of the same word in immediate succession for vehement effect
101
estuary english
a recent accent variety use in south east england which combines RP with some aspects of regional southern accents
102
ethnography
the study of how a group of people communicate, aethnograohers are often part of the community they study
103
ethnolect
a style of language thought to be characterful of a particular ethnic group
104
etymology
the study of word origins
105
euphemism
an indirect form of language that enables speakers to avoid mentioning something unpleasant or offensive
106
exclamatory
when a sentence conveys a strong sense of emotion, sense of alarm or overly strong emphasis
107
exonormative
looking beyond the immediate community for the norms of language use
108
external factor
a factor to do with external forces
109
eye dialect
using the regular alphabet to represent sounds, rather than a phonetic or phonemic alphabet
110
face theory
the idea that we all have a public self-image that we need to project and protect
111
face threatening act
in face theory something that threatens a persons self image
112
face work
the effort we put in to manage our public imagine
113
familect
a style of language used within a family
114
field specific lexis
the language of a certain area
115
first language
the first language learned by an individual, usually in childhood
116
focus
the area where most attention is concentrated
117
formal
designed for use on serious or public occasions where people pay attention to behaviour and appearance
118
framing
the idea that speakers mark their understanding of the context they are in
119
free morpheme
a morpheme that can exist as an independent word
120
functional
emphasising what something is for, it’s purposes
121
functional theory
the idea that language changes because society does
122
gender
the social expectations that arise as a result of being one sex or another
123
genderlect
a style of language thought to be distinctive of either men or women
124
generic
for general use or genera, reference
125
genre
in a language study a type of text in any mode which is defined by its purpose it’s feature of both. in literary fields genre tends to refer primarily to the literary genre of prose,poetry and drama but it can also refer to types of content
126
genre theory
how different genres of writing are structured and how people learn to produce them
127
gestalt expression
the term dental is german for shape or form and refers to the way in which children at certain stage can compress a string of words into a single utterance
128
global english
the idea of english as a worldwide language
129
glottal stop
a closure of the vocal cords. can be used to replace /t/ in some regional accents
130
grammar
the structural aspects of language that tie items together
131
grapheme
visual symbol
132
graphology
all the visual aspects of textual design including colour typeface layout images and logos
133
grapho phonemic
the relationship between symbols and sounds
134
hegemonic
culturally dominant
135
heterodiegetic narrator
a narrator who is not an active participant in the story
136
heteronormativity
a set of norms or expectations based on heterosexuality
137
homodiegetic narrator
a narrator who is an active participant in the story
138
homonym
when one word has multiple meanings
139
homophone
different words that sound exactly the same said said out loud
140
hybrid
are blends of two or more elements
141
hyperbole
deliberate over exaggeration of things for effect
142
hypernym
the name of a category
143
hypophora
when an interrogative is immediately followed by an answer
144
hypothesis
a proposed explanation for how so,etching will work
145
idiolect
the speech patterns of an individual
146
idiom/idiomatic
an expression whose meaning is not dependent on the meanings of the word. it contains
147
illiteracy
failure to become literate- the ability to read and write
148
imperative
when a sentence is issuing a command
149
inference
using assumed knowledge toppin order to determine meaning
150
inferential framework
knowledge built up over time to in order to understand meanings that are implicit
151
infix
a particle added to the middle of a word
152
inflection
a morpheme on the end of a word to indicate grammatical relationship or category
153
informant
someone who offers information to s researcher
154
initialise
initials that cannot be pronounced as words
155
innate
something in built, already in place
156
intensifiers
a word, usually an adverb, designed to intensify the emotional content of a phrase
157
interlocutors
people engaged in a spoken interaction
158
internal factor
a factor to do with the internal structure of the language system. For example, English used to have different singular and plural forms of ‘you’: ‘thee’ and ‘thou’ to address an individual or to express closeness, and ‘ye’ and ‘you’ to address groups or to express respect to a powerful individual.
159
international english
the idea of English as a language that is used in international contexts of all kinds.
160
intertextuality
the way in which one text echoes or refers to another
161
interrogative
when a sentence is asking a question
162
intonation
tunes, created from variations in pitch, that convey meaning in the speech of a particular language
163
inventory
a list of items. For example, in phonology, a list of the sounds used in a person’s accent.
164
isogloss
a geographic boundary indicating where certain items of language are used
165
language acquisition
the development of language within an individual
166
language acquisition device (LAD)
Chomsky’s idea of an innate capacity for language learning in humans.
167
language reform
: a term used, usually by liberal commentators, to support the idea of consciously changing language because it is considered unfair to different groups.
168
Lexical priming
the way in which some words appear to be ready-made for certain meanings, as a result of their habitual use in some contexts.
169
lexis
the vocabulary of language
170
lexis (monosyllabic)
words of one syllable
171
lexis (polysyllabic)
words of two or more syllables
172
libfix
a ‘liberated’ suffix, or one which has been taken from its original context and applied to new situations. Libfixes are creations of their time, for example -gate (from Watergate), is now attached to almost anything scandalous.
173
limitations
things that are prevented or restricted. For example, an SMS has no way to
convey the subtleties of non-verbal communication (hence the need for emoticons).
174
lingua franca
where speakers don’t share the same first language, a lingua France acts as a kind of bridging language enabling them to communicate. In modern times, English acts as a lingua franca in many parts of the world.
175
linguistic appropriacy
the way in which language choices reflect ideas about what is appropriate for any given context.
176
Linguistic relativity
the idea that language shapes our thinking but does not completely control it.
177
Linguistic variable
an item of language that is likely to vary and is therefore of interest to sociolinguists.
178
Listing (asyndetic)
the listing of elements that excludes any form of co-ordinating conjunction. The prefix ‘a’ basically means ‘absence of’.
179
Listing (syndetic)
the listing of elements that features a co-ordinating conjunction.
180
Literacy
refers primarily to reading and writing, including the new types of reading and
writing that occur in digital contexts.
181
Litotes
deliberate downplaying of things for effect.
182
macro level
operating on a large scale
183
marking
in language study, identifying an item as different from the norm
184
matched guise technique
an experimental technique where a single actor puts on a different accent for different audiences but keeps the content of the speech the same
185
matronyms
names that reflect female lines of inheritance
186
meanings
messages that are communicated. Meanings are never fixed but are negotiated between speakers (or writers) and listeners (or readers) and vary considerably according to context.
187
mesolect
in contexts where creole is used, a middle style of language between standard and colloquial varieties.
188
metaphor
a language strategy for bringing two unrelated ideas together in order to suggest a new way of looking at something. Metaphors are common where something is difficult to understand because it is complex or abstract, so it is compared with something simpler or more concrete.
189
methodology
the study of different ways to research
190
micro level
operating on a small scale
191
mismatch statement
in child language studies, when a child makes a connection based on what is normally the case but isn’t the case on this particular occasion.
192
modal verbs
modal verbs accompany main verbs are often used to express degrees of certainty, desirability, or obligation.
193
mode
speech and writing are called different modes. Digital communication can draw on both of these modes, so is often called a hybrid form of communication.
194
modifier
modifiers add information. For example, adverbs add information to verbs (run quickly), and adjectives add information to nouns (a lovely day).
195
monostylistic
having only one style of communication
196
morpheme
a morpheme is an element of meaning smaller than a word. Morphemes often mark grammatical features. For example, ‘talked’ has two morphemes – ‘talk’ and ‘ed’, which indicated that the talk occurred in the past. Morphemes can also occur as bigger elements, such as the suffixes ‘ship’ and ‘hood’ in the nouns ‘partnership’ and ‘neighbourhood’.
197
morphology
the expect of grammar that refers to grammatical markings
198
multicultural london english
a recent variety combining elements of the language of different ethnic groups, particularly Afro-Caribbean English. The variety arose in London but has spread to different parts of the UK
199
multicultural urban british english
a label that refers to the way in which Multicultural Urban English has spread to other large conurbations in the UK.
200
multimodal
a multimodal text employs more than one mode of communication – for example, by using images as well as words, or by drawing on an aspect of speech as well as writing.
201
multiplexity
in studies of social networks, multiplexity refers to the number of ways in which two individuals might relate to each other, for example, as friends, workmates, and family members.
202
multiplicative meaning
the process by which one part of a text does more than just add to the meaning of another part. For example, readers understand images in the context of the words that surround them, and vice versa.
203
narratee
a fictional receiver, the person the text appears to be aimed at
204
narrator
a fictional ‘teller’ , the apparent voice behind the text as created by the author
205
narrowing
a process by which words acquire a narrower reference. For example, ‘deer’ used to refer to animals in general, not to a specific animal.
206
nationality
an aspect of identity that refers to the country
207
nationality
an aspect of identity that refers to the country of a persons birth or citizenship
208
nativist/ nativism
a belief that language acquisition relies on an in built capacity for language in humans
209
negative face need
in face theory, the need to not be imposed on by another person
210
nexus
a cluster of connection
211
nominalisation
the process of turning different grammatical elements into nouns or noun phrases. For example, in the title of the TV comedy show Feed My Funny, the adjective ‘funny’ has been nominalized, or turned into a noun.
212
non chronological
not structured with reference to time but shaped by other factors
213
non linear
in studies of literacy, non linearity refers to new forms of literacy such as web pages, where we don’t read by line but often click through further pages
214
non literacy
an oral society is non literate
215
non regional
an alternative name for an RP accent
216
non standard
different from normal or majority usage
217
non verbal behaviour
communication that takes place via the body
218
noun phrase
a phrase that has a noun or pronoun as its main word
219
nurture
the idea that language development results from being socialised by people around the learner
220
object
the thing or person receiving end of the action of the verb
221
object permanence
the idea that objects exist even when they cannot be seen
222
observer’s paradox
the paradox that the only way to collect natural speech is to observe it - the very act of observation is likely to destroy is naturalness
223
omniscient narrator
an ‘all-knowing’ figure who can report everything, including the thoughts inside all of the characters heads
224
one word stage
also called holophrastic stage, this refers to the stage of language acquisition where a single word can stand for a whole expression
225
onomatopoeia
the way in which some words appear to echo the sounds the describe
226
oracy
speaking and listening, the skills required to communicate in spoken language
227
original writing
writing of all kinds that derives from individual ideas
228
orthography
the spelling system
229
overextended
applying a label to more referents than it should have
230
overgeneralisation
applying a rule and assuming that every example follows the same systems, without realising that there are exceptions.
231
overt prestige
status that is publicly acknowledged
232
paralanguage
aspects of an individuals vocal expression
233
parallelism
the creation of patterns in a text, through repetition of words or phrases (phonological parallelism) or by balancing meanings (semantic parallelism)
for deliberate effect.
234
passive voice
use of the passive voice turns elements around, so that the thing or person being acted upon goes at the front. So, when changing the active sentence ‘I ate a good dinner’ to a passive, it becomes ‘A good dinner was eaten (by me)’. The last part is in brackets because it can be left out and the sentence still makes sense.
235
patient
an alternative word for the object in a sentence
236
patois
an alternative term for creole, sometimes spelt ‘patwa’ to distance the language
from apparent connections with Europe, and to suggest how it should be pronounced.
237
patronyms
names that reflect male lines of inheritance
238
pejoration
a process whereby a word or phrase develops more negative connotations. For example, ‘cunning’ used to mean knowledgeable.
239
phatic
language that is devoid of content but that supports social relationships
240
phonemic alphabet
an alphabet for transcribing general sounds, suitable for a specific
language. An individual sound is called a phoneme.
241
phonetic alphabet
an alphabet for transcribing the sounds of all the words languages
242
phonetics
the study of the sound system. Phonetics refers to the physical production and reception of the sound, while phonology is a more abstract idea about all the sounds of a particular language.
243
phonological system
the system of sounds within any language variety
244
pidgin
the trade language usually not the language of either of the speakers
245
pilot study
a study done in advance of a main study in order to test out different approaches
246
pivot schema
the use by children of certain key words as a ‘pivot’ to generate many utterances
247
politeness
an aspect of pragmatics that refers to the cultural rules of a community and regulates how social relationships are negotiated. Everyday use of the term ‘polite’ tends to be associated with surface aspects such as table manners and saying ‘please’ and ‘thank you’. These aspects are connected with the academic concept, but it goes much deeper than this, including all aspects of cultural rules about appropriate language use in social engagements.
248
political correctness
a term used, usually by conservative commentators, to object to the idea of consciously changing language because it is considered unfair to different groups.
249
positive face need
in face theory, the need for positive reinforcement, a feeling that we are appreciated and liked by others.
250
possessive determiners
determiners, as the name suggests, help to determine what a noun refers to – in this case, ownership (‘my’, ‘our’).
251
post colonial
the time since former colonies gained their independence
252
post telegraphic stage
a developmental stage that goes beyond children’s use of
abbreviated speech.
253
post vocalic /r/
pronouncing an /r/ after a vowel where there is an r in the spelling. For example, ‘farm’, ‘sir’, ‘horse’.
254
pragmatic rules
the unspoken rules that operate in interactions between people who share a common understanding.
255
pragmatics
assumptions made from what is meant or inferences drawn from what is said or written
256
predicate statement
an alternative term for mismatch statement
257
prefix
a particle added to the front of a word
258
preposition
a word that typically indicates direction, position, or relationship, such as ‘into’, ‘on’ or ‘of’.
259
prescriptivism
the belief that there is an absolute authority determining what is correct usage; that correctness is something absolute and unchangeable, based on rules established in the past.
260
production
the language that people can produce, which might be different from how much they can understand.
261
productive vocabulary
vocabulary that can be put to use
262
progressive form
the ‘ing’ ending in words such as ‘walking’ and ‘running’, indicating
ongoing activity.
263
pronoun
pronouns can stand in place of nouns, hence the term ‘pro-noun’. Standard English personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it and one (singular); we, you, and they (plural).
264
propaganda
the deliberate spreading of biased information
265
prosodics
prosody is the melody that our voices create via prosodic aspects such as rhythm and intonation
266
random fluctuation theory
the idea that language change is not a logical and ordered process
267
received pronunciation (RP)
an accent traditionally associated with high social status. ‘Received’ refers to the idea of social acceptance in official circles.
268
reference
reference within a text is a general term for the various ways items are related to others. Can be endophoric or exophoric.
269
referent
the thing or person being referred
270
reflectionism
the idea that language reflects the society that produces it
271
register
a form of specialist language
272
relativiser
another word for a relative pronoun, for example, ‘which’, ‘who’, ‘that’, often used at the front of a subordinate clause.
273
repertoire
the range of language forms or styles used by a speaker
274
repetition
repeating of words or phrases
275
representation
something that stands in place of something else - how something appears to be but not how it really is
276
resistance identity
an identity that goes against mainstream culture
277
restricted
used only within a specific context
278
restricted code
an idea advanced by Bernstein (and much disputed) that working-class speakers use context-based, limited forms of language.
279
retroflex
a particular way of producing the sounds /t/ and /d/ with the tip of the tongue curled back and touching the roof of the mouth.
280
rhetoric
rhetoric is the study of persuasive language, an area of study dating back to ancient Greece.
281
rhetorical question
a question that is posed for its persuasive effect and not because the speaker really expects an answer.
282
rhotic
accents where speakers produce the post-vocalic /r/, such as in many rural accents in the south-west region of the UK.
283
salient
most important,prominent or noteworthy
284
sapir-whorf hypothesis
the idea, derived from the work of Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, that our language constructs our view of the world and that it is difficult or even impossible to think beyond it.
285
scaffolding
an idea from Vygotsky’s theory of learning that structures need to be in place to help learners on to the next stage.
286
schwa
/ə/, sometimes called the middle or central vowel in English because of where it is produced in the mouth
287
scope
how far a study extends, how much is covered
288
script
a plan for what speakers are going to say and do
289
secondary sources
books and articles where researchers and commentators put forward
different theories and ideas about language.
290
second language L2
the second language learned by an individual
291
segment
to be able to segment something is to perceive the boundaries or breaks between
the units. This is a skill that is gradually acquired. Adults may not be aware of how they run
words together in speech. For example, a child once asked a teacher how to spell ‘sponner’:
he’d heard ‘Once upon a time’ as ‘One sponner time’.
292
self reported usage
people describing their own language use
293
semantics field
a group of terms from the same domain. For example, names for food or
aspects of computer communication.
294
semantic reclamation
taking language that has had negative connotations and trying to overturn them by using the language in new ways
295
semantics
refers to the meanings of words and expressions. Semantics can also refer to
meaning in a broader sense, i.e., the overall meaning of something.
296
semiotics
the study of how signs and symbols work within human communication
297
seriation
the idea of objects being in a series
298
sex
a classification of people into ‘man’ or ‘woman’ based on biological characteristics
299
shibboleth
a language item used as a marker or test of group membership
300
slang
language that is used in informal contexts and widely recognised
301
social constructivism
the idea that reality is socially constructed and that groups construct
knowledge for each other.
302
social group
individuals who share interests and connections with others, or who are classified as having something in common
303
social network
a network or relations between people in their membership of different
groups.
304
social practices
the ways in which people in groups habitually behave
305
social variation
the variation that occurs as a result of the social groups that people
connect with. For example, groups based on common interests such as sport or cookery.
306
sociocultural
related to social and cultural factors
307
sociolect
a style of language used within a particular social group
308
sociolinguistics
the study of the relationship between language use and social factors
309
solidarity
a feeling of connection with others, mutual support
310
sound symbolism
the way in which sounds are used to represent ideas – for example, in
onomatopoeia, where sounds represent noises. There is no logical connection between the
sounds and the ideas they represent.
311
speech event
a spoken interaction of a recognisable type
312
standard
used or accepted as normal or average. in language study, socially agreed usage this is familiar to most language users
313
standard english
a language system that acts as an agreed common language,
especially for formal uses. This primarily refers to the writing system of English.
314
standardisation
the process by which a form of language is developed and used as a
common code.
315
stereotype
a stereotype is based on the idea that whole groups of people conform to the
same, limited, range of characteristics.
316
sticklerism
an intrusive concern with correcting others’ language use
317
storyboard
a set of images to represent the action within a moving text such as TV programme or advertisement
318
stress
the emphasis placed on certain words, through volume, significant pauses beforehand, or inflexion.
319
stress timed
intonation that is based on applying stress at regular intervals
320
style
in language study a distinctive way of speaking or writing for different conte t
321
style model
an example of a style of writing that has helped to shape ideas of a piece of original writing
322
subject position
the perspective taken on a topic, where some aspects are foregrounded and emphasised while others are downplayed
323
subordination
a subordinate clause is one that depends on another to make complete sense
324
suffix
a particle added to the end of a word
325
super standard forms
language use that intensifies the standard forms of mainstream culture
326
superlative
an adjective that displays the most extreme value of its quality, e.g., most, biggest, smallest, worst, furthest, farthest, quietest, zaniest. Most of the time superlatives end with ‘-est’.
327
syllable based
intonation that is spread across syllables evenly
328
synchronic variation
variation across society at a single point in time
329
synonym
words that have a similar meaning
330
syntax
how words are arranged, or the word order that. is typical of a language
331
taboo
something that is off limits or forbidden
332
tag question
a question tagged onto the end of a statement
333
tautology
producing redundancy in meaning by saying the same thing twice
334
telegraphic stage
a stage where children produce abbreviated speech that, like SMS
messages in the modern world, missed out the grammatical structures and markings that
are not essential for understanding.
335
tense
this refers to the way which verbs can indicate time, for example the ‘ed’ ending on a verb such as ‘look’ indicates past time
336
theolinguistics
the study of the relationship between language and religious faith
337
topic marker
an utterance that establishes the topic of conversation
338
topic shifter
an utterance that moves a conversation onto another topic
339
transcript
a record of what speakers said and did
340
triadic structure
grouping in threes, either through repetition or through structures (either within a sentence or paragraph). This can be for emphasis or to add a sense of gathering momentum to a point being made.
341
turntaking
the way in which participants take turns at talk in interactions
342
two word stage
this involves children using two words to create mini-sentences, with the
word order often resembling adult speech.
343
under extended
applying a label to fewer referents than it should have.
For example, a child saying ‘milk’ to refer to milk in their own cup, but not a picture of some
milk in a book.
344
usage based approach
in language acquisition studies, the idea that children use ready-
made chunks of language to create many different meanings. These chunks of language are
termed constructions.
345
verb
a word that represents an action or process: in simple terms a ‘doing’ word.
346
active verb
a word that represents a physical action, e.g., jump, run, kill, slap, kiss, make
love, wallop, sleep.
347
stative verb
a word that represents a process that is often only mental, e.g., think, love, ponder, believe, (to) fear.
348
virtusous error
a mistake that has an underlying logic showing that learning has taken place
349
vocabulary
the number of words available to an individual
350
vocal fry
a vocal effect where the speaker produces a rasping, creaky sound by blowing air
through the vocal chords.
351
wave model
a model of language change that likens it to throwing a stone into a pond,
with the ripples representing change spreading from a central point.
352
world englishes
varieties of english that are used in different countries
353
zone of proximal development
in Vygotsky’s theory of learning the difference between
what a learner can do without help and what they can do with help.
