Glossary Flashcards
(153 cards)
1
Q
accessibility
A
The degree to which an interactive product is usable by people with a
disability.
2
Q
aesthetically pleasing
A
One of the user experience goals of interaction design, meaning the
device is visually appealing. Aesthetics may also relate to other senses
such as the quality of sound or the tactile feel of the device
3
Q
affinity diagrams
A
Diagrams which cluster individual statements into hierarchies showing
common themes.
4
Q
affordance
A
An attribute of an object that allows people to know how to use it. For
example, a button should invite being pressed and a knob invite being
turned. See also perceived affordance
5
Q
analytical evaluation
A
An approach to evaluation that does not involve users. This approach
includes various inspection methods and predictive models.
6
Q
assistive technologies
A
Technologies (hardware and software) which enable disabled users to
interact with a device (usually a computer) in a way that is independent
of the software application being used. Examples include screen readers,
head-mounted pointing devices and voice recognition products.
7
Q
bias
A
A factor which can affect or distort the results of an evaluation study.
Potential sources of bias include: participants that don’t match your user
profile; overly specified tasks which direct participants; an unrealistic
environment for an evaluation study; evaluator/observer bias;
methodological biases; and reporting/analysis biases, where the evaluator
reviews the data subjectively rather than objectively.
8
Q
card-based prototype
A
A kind of low-fidelity prototype that consists of a set of index cards ea
of which represents one screen or one element of a task.
9
Q
Chinese value survey
A
A value survey inspired by Hofstede’s but based on inputs by Chinese
social scientists.
10
Q
closed questions
A
Questions with a pre-specified set of responses.
11
Q
cognition
A
What goes on inside our heads when we are carrying out our everyday
activities. Cognitive processes relevant to interaction design are: attention,
perception and recognition, memory, learning, reading, speaking and
listening, problem-solving, planning, reasoning and decision-making.
12
Q
cognitive walkthrough
A
A technique for exploring a user’s mental processes while he or she
performs particular task(s) with an interactive product. For evaluation, a
cognitive walkthrough may be used to assess the usability of a user
interface design by examining whether a user can select the appropriate
action at the interface for each step in the task.
13
Q
collectivism
A
A society in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong,
cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetimes continue to
protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty. Collectivism is at the
opposite end of a cultural dimension from individualism
14
Q
conceptual design
A
Conceptual design involves producing the conceptual model for the
product. The conceptual model is a high level description of how a
system is organised and operates.
15
Q
conceptual model
A
A high level description of how a system is organised and operates. A
conceptual model is an abstraction that outlines what people can do with
a product and what concepts are needed to understand how to interact
with it. Conceptual models are comprised of four components: metaphors
and analogies; concepts the users are exposed to through the product;
relationships between those concepts; and mappings between concepts
and the user experience
16
Q
consistency
A
A consistent interface is one that follows rules, such as always clicking
the left mouse button to select graphical objects on the user interface.
17
Q
constraints
A
Ways of restricting the kind of interaction that can take place at a given
moment; for example, deactivating menu items.
18
Q
contextual inquiry
A
An approach to establishing requirements which emphasises the
importance of context.
19
Q
continuous input devices
A
Devices designed to handle tasks that cannot be split easily into a number
of discrete steps, such as dragging icons across the screen or drawing
informal sketches. A mouse is an example of a continuous input device.
20
Q
counterbalancing
A
A strategy used in the design of experiments to control for order effects
such as practice effects or fatigue effects. An example of
counterbalancing would be: group A completes condition 1 followed by
condition 2, and group B completes condition 2 followed by condition 1.
21
Q
cultural dimensions
A
Measurable attributes of a culture by which a culture can be
characterised.
22
Q
culture
A
The system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviours, symbols and
language of a particular group of people.
23
Q
data requirements
A
Requirements concerned with the characteristics (type, volatility,
accuracy, etc.) of the data needed by the interactive product.
24
Q
descriptive statistics
A
A way of summarising quantitative data using techniques such as the
mean, median and mode
25
design model
The conceptual model developed by the designer. This is the model the
designer has of how the system should work.
26
design principle
A generalisable abstraction intended to orient designers towards thinking
about different aspects of their design. Providing appropriate feedback is
a well-known design principle. Design principles are derived from a mix
of theory-based knowledge, experience and common sense.
27
design rule
Design guidance that is highly specific and which should be followed. A
design rule does not require interpretation to apply.
28
direct manipulation
An instantiation of the interaction type of manipulating and navigating.
Direct manipulation has three fundamental properties: continuous
representation of the objects and actions of interest; rapid reversible
incremental actions with immediate feedback about the object of interest;
physical actions and button pressing instead of issuing commands with
complex syntax.
29
direct observation
An approach to data gathering in which users are observed directly by the
investigator.
30
direct pointing devices
Input devices that allow a user to point directly at the object he or she is
interested in. Examples include the touch-screen, and the stylus (as used
in pen systems). Direct pointing devices tend to be more intuitive to use
than indirect pointing devices.
31
disability
Two definitions of disability are given in Block 2, one from the UK
Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) of 1995, and one from the World
Health Organisation (WHO). 1. According to the DDA, a person is
disabled if: they have a mental or physical impairment; the impairment
has an adverse effect on their ability to carry out normal day-to-day
activities; the adverse effect is substantial and long-term (meaning it has
lasted for 12 months, or is likely to last for more than 12 months or for
the rest of their life). 2. According to the WHO, disability is any
restriction or lack of ability, resulting from an impairment, to perform an
activity in the manner or within the range considered normal for a human
being.
32
discrete data
Data that has a finite number of states, steps or increments. The state of a
light switch is an example of discrete data: it can be on or off. Numbers
6
Glossary
and letters are also discrete data, as they can be represented by binary
digits.
33
discrete input devices
Input devices that can be used to enter discrete data, such as letters and
numbers or commands. A keyboard is an example of a discrete input
device, being made up of a number of keys, each of which can be in one
of two states: pressed or not pressed.
34
displacement joystick
A joystick that is lever mounted in a fixed base. A displacement joystick
can be moved in two dimensions.
35
distributed cognition
A theoretical framework which looks at a cognitive system distributed
across individuals, artefacts and internal and external representations,
rather than cognition just within a person’s head
36
domain of application
An area of expertise and knowledge in some real-world activity,
providing the underlying concepts for an interactive product. An example
of a domain might be ‘travel’, with associated concepts including ‘flight’,
‘reservation’ and ‘airport’.
37
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)
An industry standard Rapid Applications development (RAD)-based
method.
38
dyslexia
Dyslexia literally means ‘difficulty with words’, but the term covers a
range of cognitive impairments.
39
effectiveness
How good a product is at doing what it is supposed to do – does it allow
users to learn well, carry out their work efficiently, access the information
they need, buy the goods they want, and so on?
40
efficiency
How well a product supports users in carrying out their tasks. Does it
allow users to sustain a high level of productivity?
41
environmental requirements
```
Requirements concerned with understanding the context of use of the
interactive product (physical; social; organisational; technical) and the
constraints this imposes on the product.
```
42
essential use cases
These describe the interaction between a user and the system/product in
terms of user intentions and system/product responsibilities
43
ethnography
An approach used to understand activity whereby a designer or researcher
immerses himself or herself into the environment of interest for a period
of one or two years, to experience at first hand the culture of the
environment and users’ work activities in their natural setting. Rather
than true ethnography, interaction design makes practical use of an
ethnographical approach through workplace site visits, and the use of
ethnographical techniques such as direct and indirect observation of users
while they are engaged in their work activities
44
evaluation approach
Each of the three main evaluation approaches is based on a distinct set of
values and assumptions as to how evaluation should be conducted.
45
evaluation method
An evaluation method is the practical technique deployed to answer the
questions set in relation to an evaluation goal. The Set Book lists five
categories of evaluation method: observing users, asking users their
opinions, asking experts their opinions, testing users’ performance, and
modelling users’ task performance.
46
evolutionary prototyping
An approach to prototyping in which the final product evolves through a
series of prototypes
47
expectation management
The process of making sure that users’ views and expectations of the new
product are realistic.
48
external cognition
External cognition is concerned with explaining the cognitive processes
involved when we interact with different external representations.
49
external consistency
This refers to a user interface being consistent with the external world.
For example, on the dashboard of a particular car, the icon used to
indicate that the fog lights are on is the same icon used throughout the
whole range of cars produced by the same manufacturer.
50
feedback
The information sent back to the user about what action has been done
and what has been accomplished.
51
femininity
In the context of cultural dimensions, femininity stands for a society in
which social gender roles overlap: both men and women are supposed to
be modest, tender, and concerned with the quality of life. Femininity is at
the opposite end of the dimension from masculinity on the MAS index
52
field studies
A general term used to describe studies conducted in the natural setting
of the activity. While the course specifically uses this term to describe an
evaluation approach, note that field studies may be used more generally
in all of the interaction design phases, where the basic techniques of
interview and observation may be used for data gathering.
53
field study evaluation approach
Evaluation study that is undertaken in a natural setting with the aim of
increasing understanding about what users do naturally and how
technology impacts them. The benefit of a field study is that you can gain
an understanding about what users do naturally and how technology
impacts them.
54
Fitts’ Law
A law which predicts the time it takes to reach a target using a pointing
device.
55
focus groups
These consist of a representative sample of the target population and take
the form of a group interview with a facilitator present. See also
groupthink.
56
formative evaluation
Evaluations carried out during design to check that the product continues
to meet users’ needs.
57
functional requirements
Requirements as to what the interactive product should do
58
GOMS (Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection rules) model
A predictive modelling technique which models the knowledge and
cognitive processes involved when users interact with systems.
59
graphics tablet
An indirect pointing device. It is a flat panel placed near the screen. The
user moves a stylus or finger across the tablet, and the motion is reflected
by the movement of a cursor on the screen.
60
groupthink
A phenomenon in which individual opinions become subsumed into that
of the group.
61
head-up display
An output device which is a specialised form of projection system often
used in aircraft cockpits and vehicles, where key information is projected
just in front of the vehicle’s front window. This means the user does not
need to keep looking down at the control board.
62
heuristic
A design or usability principle used in practice.
| greek: to find, to discover
63
heuristic evaluation
An inspection technique for evaluation in which experts, guided by a set
of usability principles known as heuristics, evaluate whether user
interface elements, such as dialogue boxes, menus, navigation structure,
online help, etc., conform to the principles.
64
high-fidelity prototype
A prototype which uses materials that you would expect to find in the
final product, usually exhibits automatic interaction, and has similar
characteristics to the final product. High-fidelity prototypes are usually
built using tools like Visual Basic.
65
horizontal prototype
A prototype that provides a wide range of functions but with little detail
66
human–computer interaction (HCI)
HCI is “concerned with the design, evaluation and implementation of
interactive computing systems for human use and with the study of major
phenomena surrounding them”.
67
indirect observation
An approach to data gathering in which users are observed indirectly by
the investigator through, for example diaries or interaction logging.
68
indirect pointing devices
Input devices that are physically remote from the object being pointed at.
Examples include the mouse, the trackball, the joystick and the graphics
tablet. They are different to direct pointing devices, which allow the user
to point directly at the object.
69
individualism (IND)
A society in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is
expected to look after herself or himself and his or her immediate family
only. See also collectivism
70
inferential statistics
Results based on tests of statistical significance, which give the
probability that a claim arising from quantitative data can be applied to a
user population as a whole.
71
information processing
A theoretical framework for cognition that views the mind as an
information processor in which information enters and exits the mind
through a series of ordered processing stages.
72
interaction design
Designing interactive products to support the way people communicate
and interact in their everyday and working lives.
73
interaction device
A device for input or output, or both.
74
interaction log
A record of key presses, mouse, or other device movements collected
during indirect observation.
75
interaction type
Refers to four fundamental types of interaction: instructing, conversing,
manipulating and exploring.
76
interactive product
An artefact with which a user can interact. This artefact is usually based
around computing technology, and may be both hardware and software
(e.g. a personal organiser) or just software (e.g. a website).
77
interface sketch
A form of low-fidelity (paper-based) prototype, which shows a detailed
design of the interface for an interactive product.
78
interface type
Refers to one of a wide range of interfaces that may be used to design
for a user experience. Some interface types are primarily concerned with
function, others focus on the interaction type, the interaction devices
being used, or the platform being designed for.
79
internal consistency
This refers to a user interface being consistent within itself. For example,
every warning light in a particular car is red
80
Keystroke Level model
A predictive modelling technique which provides numerical predictions
of user performance.
81
learnability
How easy a product is to learn to use. Does it allow the user to work out
how to use the product by exploring the interface and trying things out?
Can all the functions be learned this way?
82
lifecycle model
A model of the development process that captures a set of activities and
how they are related. Such models are used to track progress, specify
deliverables, allocate resources and set targets.
83
Likert scale
Scale which measures opinions, attitudes and beliefs by means of offering
a range of possibilities.
84
low-fidelity prototype
A prototype that does not look very much like the final product, does not
exhibit any (or only limited) automatic interaction, and is built with
materials such as cardboard, paper and string. Since they are simple,
cheap and easy to modify, they support exploration of alternative designs
and ideas
85
mapping
The relationship between controls and their effects in the world. An
example of good mapping is the up arrow on a keyboard which, when
pressed, causes the cursor to move upwards.
86
memorability
How easy a product is to remember how to use, once learned. What kind
of support has been provided to help the occasional user remember how
to use the interactive product?
87
mental model
A mental construct within the head of the user that consists of knowledge
of how to use something and knowledge of how it works
88
MoSCoW
An acronym for prioritising requirements into: Must have; Should have;
Could have, and Won’t have right now.
89
non-functional requirements
Requirements which describe the various constraints on the product.
These can include technical constraints, e.g. the necessity to interface
with an existing system, and non-technical, e.g. the necessity to support a
particular type of user.
90
opportunistic evaluations
A common practice in which designers informally and quickly get
feedback from users or consultants to confirm that their ideas are in line
with users’ needs and are liked.
91
perceived affordance
A learned mapping between a screen representation of a control and its
operation.
92
performance measure
A performance measure is a quantitative measure related to the use of an
interactive product. The following are example performance measures
taken during a user test: the time taken to complete a typical task or
tasks, the number of errors made while performing a task, and the route
taken to complete a task.
93
persona
A notional named person fitting a particular user profile.
94
physical design
Physical design considers the detail of the interactive product including
the colours, sound and images to use, menu design and icon design, size
and location of buttons and so on.
95
power distance (PD)
The extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and
organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed
unequally.
96
problem space
The problem space for a particular product refers to the range of possible
conceptual models for this product and their rationales.
97
prototype
A limited representation of a design that allows users to interact with it
and to explore its suitability. See also high-fidelity, low-fidelity, horizontal
and vertical prototypes.
98
prototyping
Prototyping involves producing a prototype – a limited version of the
product – with the purpose of answering specific questions about the
design’s feasibility or appropriateness.
99
proxy user
Someone who acts as a representative of the users, and knows how they
think and behave
100
qualitative data
Data such as opinions, beliefs etc., not represented by numbers. For
example, statements of usability defects, or subjective descriptions of the
difficulties that participants faced while using an interactive product, are
qualitative data.
101
quantitative data
Data represented by numbers. For example, measurements such as the
time taken by the participant to complete a task, the number of errors
made by the participant, or the time spent by the participant referring to
documentation.
102
Rapid Applications Development (RAD) lifecycle model
A software engineering lifecycle model characterised by time-limited
development cycles and workshops in which users and developers come
together to determine requirements.
103
resolution
The number of pixels per unit area on a computer-generated display. The
greater the resolution, the better the picture.
104
safety
How well a product protects the user from dangerous conditions and
undesirable situations. What are the range of errors that are possible and
what measures are there to permit the user to recover easily from these?
105
scenarios
Informal and richly contextual narrative descriptions of either current or
envisioned use of the interactive product or of a particular activity.
106
screen reader
Software which monitors the output from the computer to a screen and
passes it onto a speech synthesiser or a Braille display.
107
semantic differential scale
Scale which measures opinions, attitudes and beliefs by means of pairs of
words which represent opposing views.
108
semi-structured interviews
Interviews which include both open and closed questions, and some
degree of spontaneity. The interview is basically controlled by the
interviewer, but he or she is prepared to deviate from a pre-specified plan
to follow up any interesting points which might arise.
109
sensor
Sensors can be used to monitor the environment and transmit changing
data to an interactive product. Sensors may detect light, heat, movement
and similar environmental factors.
110
severity ratings
A measure given to a usability defect to indicate the criticality of its
impact on the usability of the user interface design.
111
short-term / long-term orientation
A dimension identified in the Chinese Value Survey, which is associated
with wanting quick results and a desire to ‘seize the day’ (short-term) as
against persistence and looking to the future (long-term).
112
signing avatar
An animated sign language interpreter
113
social model of disability
All the things that impose restrictions on disabled people, ranging from
individual prejudice to institutional discrimination, from inaccessible
public buildings to unusable transport systems, from segregated education to excluding work arrangements, and so on. See also medical model of
disability.
114
speech interface
A method whereby an interactive product is able to recognise the words a
user speaks. This is useful in a variety of situations, including those in
which the user is physically disabled.
115
spiral lifecycle model
A lifecycle model that incorporates risk analysis and prototyping in an
iterative framework that allows ideas and progress to be repeatedly
checked and evaluated.
116
stakeholders
“People or organisations who will be affected by the system, and who
have a direct or indirect influence on the system requirements” (Kotonya,
G. and Sommerville, I. (1998) Requirements Engineering: Processes and
techniques, Chichester, UK, John Wiley & Sons.).
117
Star lifecycle model
A lifecycle model which does not specify any ordering of activities.
Evaluation is central to this model; therefore, whenever an activity is
completed, its results must be evaluated.
118
stereoscopic displays
Some head-mounted displays have two screens, one in front of each eye.
The two images represent slightly different perspectives on the objects
and together they combine to create the illusion of three dimensions. This
can be used for virtual reality applications.
119
storyboard
A series of sketches showing how a user might progress through a task
using the intended product.
120
stratified sampling
This is a sampling technique in which the structure of the sample reflects
the structure of the population. For example, in a population composed
of 60% men and 40% women, a sample of 10 would have 6 men and 4
women.
121
structured interviews
Interviews entirely controlled by the interviewer using pre-specified
questions, as on a questionnaire.
122
stylus
A direct pointing device that is detached from the product.
123
summative evaluation
Evaluations that are carried out to assess the success of a finished
product, such as those to satisfy a sponsoring agency or to check that a
standard is being upheld.
124
system image
The means by which the functionality and state of a system is presented
to the user. It represents how the system actually works
125
tag
Tags are used to attach static information to objects in the physical world
(e.g. products in a shop). A tag may be active which means that is needs
its own power source, or it may be passive in which case it relies on the
reader for its power to transmit.
126
tangible interfaces
An interface type that integrates computational capabilities into the
physical environment.
127
theory of action
This framework specifies seven stages of an activity (establish a goal;
form an intention; specify an action sequence; execute an action; perceive
the system state; interpret the state; evaluate the system state with respect
to goals and intentions), and proposes that these stages take place
sequentially. It also highlights the gulf of execution and the gulf of
evaluation which represent the distance between the user and the interface
and how to overcome the gaps.
128
think-aloud technique
The data obtained when a participant is encouraged to verbalise their
thoughts during a data gathering session, such as in an evaluation. While
the course focuses on the use of the think-aloud technique for evaluation,
it may be used more generally outside the course in all of the phases of
interaction design. Think-aloud technique may also be referred to as
think-aloud protocols or verbal protocols in other sources.
129
throwaway prototyping
An approach to prototyping which intends that the prototypes be thrown
away and not used in the final product.
130
uncertainty avoidance (UA)
The extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or
unknown situations.
131
universal design
The design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to
the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialised
design.
132
unstructured interviews
Interviews which resemble conversations, though with a definite focus,
with either of the interviewer and interviewee being able to control the
direction of discussion.
133
usability
Ensuring that, from the user’s perspective, interactive products are easy to
learn, effective to use and enjoyable
134
usability defect
A difficulty in using an interactive product that affects the users’
satisfaction and the system’s effectiveness and efficiency. Usability
defects can lead to confusion, error, delay or outright failure to complete
some task on the part of the user. They make the interactive product less
usable for its target users.
135
usability engineering
Usability engineering involves specifying quantifiable measures of
product performance, documenting them in a usability specification, and
assessing the product against them.
136
Usability Engineering Lifecycle model
A software engineering lifecycle model which provides a holistic view of
usability engineering and a detailed description of how to perform
usability tasks.
137
usability goals
These are the goals which are used to optimise the interaction users have
with interactive products with respect to usability.
138
usability testing evaluation approach
One of the three main evaluation approaches. The methods associated
with the usability testing evaluation approach are: user testing in a
controlled (laboratory-like) environment; observation of user activity in
the controlled environment and in the field; and questionnaires and
interviews.
139
use cases
These describe a sequence of actions/activities comprising the interaction
between a user and the interactive product. See also essential use cases.
140
user-centred design
In a user-centred approach, real users and their goals, not just technology,
are the driving force behind the development of a product.
141
user-centred development
A user-centred approach to the development of interactive products which
means that real user users and their goals, not just technology, are the
driving force behind the development process.
142
user characteristics
User characteristics capture the key attributes of the intended user group,
that is, the properties of the users which impact on interaction design.
143
user experience
What the interaction feels like to the user. This includes considering
issues such as whether the product is satisfying, enjoyable, fun,
entertaining, helpful, motivating, aesthetically pleasing, supportive of
creativity, rewarding and emotionally fulfilling.
144
user experience goals
User experience goals are used to improve the way the interaction with
interactive products feels to the user
145
user profile
The collection of attributes of a class of ‘typical users’.
146
user studies
Studies which essentially involve looking at how people behave either in
their natural habitats or in the laboratory, both with old technologies and
with new ones.
147
user testing
A method within the usability testing evaluation approach which involves
measuring the performance of typical users doing typical tasks in
controlled laboratory-like conditions.
148
utility
The extent to which a product provides the right kind of functionality, so
that users can do what they need or want to do
149
vertical prototype
A prototype that provides a lot of detail for only a few functions.
150
virtual reality
Hardware and software that allows the creation and exploration of a
virtual world. An aircraft simulator is an example of a virtual reality
system.
151
visibility
Controls should be clearly visible, so users can see the controls that are
available to them. Visual feedback should also be clearly visible, so users
can understand what action has been done and what effect has been
achieved and hence what needs to be done next
152
Volere shells
A method of representing requirements, which includes details of the
context of the requirement. These include fit criterion, customer
satisfaction and dissatisfaction ratings, the priority of the requirement,
conflicts with other requirements, originator, history, etc.
153
waterfall lifecycle model
A linear model of the development process in which each step must be
completed before the next step can be started. Typically it does not allow
for iteration or the involvement of users.
