Glossary - genetics Flashcards
(209 cards)
1
Q
an inherited characteristic that improves an organism’s ability to survive and repro¬duce in a particular environment
A
adaptation
2
Q
the clumping together of red blood cells or microorganisms in the presence of a specific antibody
A
agglutination
3
Q
an inherited metabolic disorder that affects the metabolism of certain amino acids and leads to darkening of the urine due to the excretion of homogentisic acid
A
alkaptonuria
4
Q
one of the alternative forms of a gene
A
allele
5
Q
the formation of two species that occurs when sub-populations of a species are reproductively isolated due to geographic separation
A
allopatric speciation
6
Q
– the basic building block of proteins
A
amino acid
7
Q
a procedure used to recover a sam¬ple of the amniotic fluid surrounding a fetus in the womb for the purpose of performing genetic tests
A
amniocentesis
8
Q
having no definite shape, resembling the form or the type of movement of an amoeba
A
amoeboid
9
Q
the third stage of mitosis when sister chromatids split and move toward opposite poles of the cell
A
anaphase
10
Q
a protein produced by immune cells that binds to a specific antigen to neutralize its effects
A
antibody
11
Q
the triplet of nucleotides in the transfer RNA that is complementary to a triplet base (codon) in the messenger RNA
A
anticoden
12
Q
a substance that evokes the production of an antibody
A
antigen
13
Q
a type of reproduction involving only one parent without the fusion of gam¬etes (sperm and egg); usually produces genetically identical offspring
A
asexual reproduction
14
Q
a temporary energy storage molecule for most cells
A
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
15
Q
a controlled digestion process in which a cell’s own subcellular organelles are broken down and recycled
A
autophagy
16
Q
any eukaryotic chromosome other than a sex chromosome
A
autosome
17
Q
a virus that infects bacteria
A
bacteriophage
18
Q
a type of asexual reproduction in which a parent cell divides into two genetically iden¬tical daughter cells
A
binary fission
19
Q
the theorem that describes the expansion of any power of a binomial, that is, (a + b)m
A
binomial theorem
20
Q
the removal of a piece of tissue from a living body for diagnostic studies
A
biopsy
21
Q
the use of molecular techniques in living organisms to manufacture useful products
A
biotechnology
22
Q
a historically influential but factually incorrect notion that organisms contain a blend of traits from their parents
A
blending inheritance
23
Q
a type of asexual reproduction in which a new organism grows from the body of the par¬ent, eventually detaches from the parent, and lives independently
A
budding
24
Q
a disease caused by abnormally rapid pro¬liferation of body cells
A
cancer
25
a sugar that contains carbon, hydro¬gen, and oxygen in the ratio 1:2:1 (CH2O)n
carbohydrate
26
in genetics, an individual who is heterozygous for a particular trait
carrier
27
the basic structural and functional unit of liv¬ing organisms
cell
28
a series of orderly events a eukaryotic cell goes through, from a dividing parent cell to two daughter cells
cell cycle
29
the theory that cells are the basic unit of life and all cells come from preexisting cells
cell theory
30
the metabolic pathways by which food molecules are broken down and energy is released and harvested by the cell
cellular respiration
31
a large organelle in plant cells that stores the waste products of metabolism, maintains turgor pressure, and maintains growth
central vacuole
32
a laboratory technique in which a sample is spun around a central axis at high speed to separate its components based on their size, density, or weight
centrifugation
33
a structure in animal cells composed of bundles of microtubule triplets during cell division
centriole
34
a region where sister chromatids (duplicated chromosomes) are joined and to which spindle fibers are attached during cell division
centromere
35
a procedure in which a sample of the fetal chorionic villi (part of the placenta) is removed for genetic testing
chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
36
one of a pair of identical chromosomes after DNA replication in the cell cycle
chromatid
37
the dispersed DNA–protein complex that makes up eukaryotic chromosomes
chromatin
38
a laboratory procedure used to separate and isolate substances in a mixture based on the physical or chemical properties of the constituents
chromatography
39
a complex structure in the nucleus of eukaryotes or in the nucleoid region of prokaryotes that is comprised of DNA
chromosome
40
short microscopic projections of the cell surface specialized for locomotion
cilia (sing.cilium)
41
the first few cell divisions of an animal zygote
cleavage
42
a specialized depression on the surface of a cell membrane, formed as a result of receptor-mediated endocytosis
coated pit
43
a type of inheritance in which two separate alleles at a locus are equally expressed and produce different phenotypic traits
co-dominance
44
a triplet of nucleotides in messenger RNA coding for a specific amino acid; the basic unit of the genetic code
codon
45
the transfer of the genetic material by joining two bacteria or protists
conjugation
46
an often fatal genetic disease char¬acterized by the production of thick mucus that obstructs various ducts in different organs, leading to infection and interference of important functions
cystic fibrosis
47
the cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separa¬tion into two daughter cells
cytokinesis
48
relating to the science of cytology, a sub-discipline of biology that studies the microscop¬ic structure of cells
cytological
49
the content of a cell inside the plasma membrane and outside the nucleus
cytoplasm
50
a network of protein fila¬ments in the cytoplasm of a cell that serves various functions in support, movement, and transport; the system includes microtubules, intermediate fila¬ments, and microfilaments
cytoskeletal elements
51
the fluid portion of the cytoplasm
cytosol
52
a five-carbon sugar that is a building block of DNA and some nucleotides
deoxyribose
53
the genetic material for all organisms except the RNA virus
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
54
describes an allele that determines the phenotype when the genotype is heterozygous
dominant
55
the spiral shape of a double-stranded DNA molecule
double helix
56
the production of a second copy of a particular sequence of DNA
duplication
57
the method of distinguishing mol¬ecules, such as a mixture of proteins or DNA, according to their motility in a gel-like substance in an electric field
electrophoresis
58
related to an embryo, or being in the state of an embryo
embryonic
59
a process by which liquids or solid particles are taken up by a cell through invagination of the plasma membrane
endocytosis
60
the inner epithelial lining of the uterus
endometrium
61
a network of tubules that is part of the endomembrane system in eukaryotic cells specializing in the synthesis and modification of biological molecules
endoplasmic reticulum
62
the theory that ancient large eukaryotic cells ingested small prokaryotes, which became subcellular organelles (such as mitochon¬dria and chloroplasts) of the large host cell
endosymbiosis
63
the scientific study of changes in the inheritance of traits that occur without changes in the DNA sequence
epigenetics
64
an interaction between two genes in which one gene alters the expression or effect of another gene
epistasis
65
a hormone produced by the kidney in response to low levels of blood oxygen that stimu¬lates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow
erythropoietin
66
the study or practice of altering a popu¬lation, especially of humans, by controlling fertility and selective breeding for desirable traits
eugenics
67
the process of change by which new species develop from preexisting ancestral species over time
evolution
68
a process by which a vesicle within a cell fuses with the plasma membrane and releases its contents to the outside
exocytosis
69
the nucleotide sequence of a gene that codes for a protein
exon
70
an inherited meta¬bolic disorder that results in high levels of blood cholesterol; the disorder is caused by a lack or mal-function of receptors for the low-density lipoprotein (LDL) that removes cholesterol from the blood
familial hypercholesterolemia
71
long, whip-like append¬ages that propel and move cells
flagella (sing.flagellum)
72
the branch of genomics that analyzes the biological function of genes and their products
functional genomics
73
a hypothetical particle postulated to be the hereditary unit in the (now recognized as incor¬rect) theory of pangenesis
gemmule
74
a unit of heredity consisting of a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA (or RNA in some viruses)
gene
75
the process by which the infor¬mation encoded in a gene is converted first into messenger RNA and then to a protein
gene expression
76
the code relating nucleotide triplets in messenger RNA (or DNA) to amino acids in proteins
genetic code
77
a change in the allele frequency in a population that occurs by chance
genetic drift
78
a sub-discipline of biology that studies genes and heredity
genetics
79
the full set of DNA in a cell or organism
genome
80
the DNA constituting the genome of a cell or an organism, as distinguished from extra chromosomal DNAs, such as plasmids
genomic DNA
81
the genetic makeup (set of alleles) of an organism
genotype
82
a reproductive cell (gamete), or one of its precursors, of a multicellular organism
germ cell
83
the lineage of cells from which gametes are derived
germ line
84
a protein with one or more chains of sugar (carbohydrate) attached
glycoprotein
85
a stack of tubules that is a com¬ponent of the endomembrane system in eukaryotic cells that modifies, sorts, and packages products delivered from the endoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
86
the condition when a population is not evolving
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
87
the principle that allele frequencies and genotypes in a population remain constant over generations
Hardy-Weinberg theorem
88
the process by which characteristics are passed from one generation to the next
heredity
89
capable of being passed from one genera¬tion to the next
heritable
90
having two different alleles at a gene locus for a particular trait
heterozygous
91
a pair of chromosomes with the same set of genes, each derived from one parent
homologous chromosomes
92
having identical alleles at a gene locus for a particular trait
homozygous
93
the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) by destroying the T cells (a type of white blood cell) of the immune system
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
94
the offspring of a cross between two species
hybrid
95
1.in agriculture, to cross breed two dif¬ferent varieties to generate an offspring with traits from both parents 2.in molecular biology, to com¬bine strands of nucleic acid from different sources to form a new species of double-stranded nucleic acid
hybridize
96
having a tendency to repel water and not dissolve or mix with water
hydrophobic
97
a tentative explanation or answer to a question that can be tested and falsified by the sci¬entific method
hypothesis
98
– a pattern of inheritance in which the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two homozygous phenotypes
incomplete dominance
99
a hormone synthesized by pancreatic islet cells that promotes the uptake of glucose by the cell for energy production, thereby lowering the blood glucose level
insulin
100
a state of diminished effective¬ness of insulin in lowering the levels of blood glucose, usually resulting from prolonged insulin treatments and loss of responsiveness of cells associated with diet, lack of exercise, and obesity
insulin resistance
101
– a defensive protein produced by virus-infected cells that is capable of increasing the resistance of other cells to the virus
interferon
102
one of three types of cytoskeletal elements in eukaryotic cells involved in maintaining the cell shape and stabilizing organelles
intermediate filaments
103
a part of the nucleotide sequences of a gene that does not code for a protein
intron
104
a set of photographs displaying paired chromosomes by size and shape
karyotyping
105
the specialized region on the centro¬mere of the chromatid to which microtubules attach during cell division
kinetochore
106
one of the rules of inheri¬tance formulated by Mendel which states that one of the alleles coding for a particular trait will be expressed (dominant allele) while the other will not be expressed (recessive allele)
law of dominance
107
one of the rules of inheritance formulated by Mendel which states that nonhomologous chromosomes are sorted indepen-dently from each other during gamete formation
law of independent assortment
108
one of the rules of inheritance formulated by Mendel which states that alleles or homologous chromosomes are segregated during gamete formation
law of segregation
109
genes on the same chromosome that share a close association such that they tend to be inherited together
linked genes
110
one of a group of nonpolar and hydrophobic molecules consisting mainly of a hydrocarbon chain
lipid
111
one type of lipoprotein that transports and delivers cholesterol to the cell; LDLs are the “bad” lipopro¬teins associated with a higher risk of cardiovascular disease
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol
112
an organelle specializing in digestion in animal cells and some protists
lysosome
113
evolution on a grand scale that begins with the formation of new species and includes mass extinction and major geological events over long periods of time
macroevolution
114
a special type of cell division that occurs in sexually reproducing species during which one diploid germ cell produces four haploid gametes
meiosis
115
a type of RNA that is transcribed from DNA and acts as the message for the translation of proteins
messenger RNA (mRNA)
116
the second stage of mitosis when chro¬mosomes with sister chromatids line up along the metaphase plate
metaphase
117
evolutionary change on a small scale that is defined as changes in gene frequencies in a population over time
microevolution
118
one of three types of cytoskeletal elements in eukaryotic cells involved in maintaining the cell shape and cell movement
microfilaments
119
a class of short (~22 nucleo¬tides) RNA involved in post-transcriptional regulation
micro RNA (miRNA)
120
the region or structure where spindle microtubules are organized during cell division
microtubule organizing centers (MTOC)
121
one of three types of cytoskeletal elements in eukaryotic cells involved in transportingorganelles and as a structural component of flagella and cilia
microtubules
122
circular DNA found in the mitochondrion believed to be of prokaryotic origin; because mitochondria are generally carried in egg cells but not in sperm, mitochondrial DNA is passed to offspring from mothers, but not fathers
mitochondrial DNA
123
a type of cell division in multicellular organisms that produces genetically identical cells
mitosis
124
the consolidation of Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection with evi¬dence from the Mendelian theory of genetics, population genetics, and other fields
modern synthesis
125
having the potential to form a set of multiple cell types in the body
multipotent
126
a change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA in an organism
mutation
127
a process in which individuals with certain heritable traits are more likely to sur¬vive and reproduce in a particular environment
natural selection
128
molecules that have equal sharing of electrons
nonpolar
129
a polymer consisting of many mono¬nucleotides; e.g., DNA and RNA
nucleic acid
130
a crude mixture of nucleic acids and many proteins extracted from a cell
nuclein
131
the region containing all or most of the genetic material of prokaryotic cells
nucleoid
132
a round granular structure within the nucleus of a cell, composed of protein and RNA; involved with ribosomal RNA synthesis and the for¬mation of ribosomes in eukaryotes
nucleolus
133
the building block of DNA and RNA which consists of a phosphate and a five-carbon sugar with a nitrogenous base attached
nucleotide
134
a membrane-bound subcellular structure where DNA is located in eukaryotic cells
nucleus
135
a gene that stimulates cell proliferation or causes cancer if mutated or abnormally activated
oncogene
136
undifferentiated female germ cells that give rise to oocytes through meiosis
oogonia (sing.oogonium)
137
a specialized structure that performs a particular function in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
organelle
138
a living thing
organism
139
an incorrect theory of heredity that posited that a reproductive cell contains gemmules derived from individual cells from different parts of the organism
pangenesis
140
a chart of a family tree depicting the pat¬tern of transmission of a particular trait
pedigree
141
a type of endocytosis in which solid particles are ingested by a cell
phagocytosis
142
the physical or biochemical character¬istics of an organism that are the result of interaction between genotype and the environment
phenotype
143
a lipid molecule containing fatty acids and a phosphate group that is an important constituent of membranes
phospholipid
144
metabolic processes, carried out by green plants and some bacteria, by which visible light is used to synthesize compounds such as ATP and glucose
photosynthesis
145
a type of endocytosis in which the cell takes in fluid and dissolved substances by invagina¬tion of the plasma membrane
pinocytosis
146
the organ that is formed in female mammals during pregnancy that provides for the nourishment of the fetus and the elimination of the fetal waste products
placenta
147
the border of all cells that serves as a selectively permeable barrier and site of communication with the external environment
plasma membrane
148
occurs when a single gene can deter¬mine more than one distinct phenotypic effect
pleiotropy
149
having the potential to form any type of cell in the body
pluripotent
150
inflammation of the lungs usually caused by infection with viruses or bacteria
pneumonia
151
a pattern of inheritance in which a single phenotypic trait is determined by the additive effect of multiple genes
polygenic
152
a molecular biol¬ogy technique in which DNA sequences are amplified for the purpose of research, forensics, or medicine
polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
153
having more than two sets of genes and chromosomes
polyploidy
154
a sub-discipline of genetics that studies the processes influencing gene frequen¬cies in a population
population genetics
155
a strand of nucleic acid, usually RNA, which is complementary to a given DNA sequence for DNA replication
primer
156
a formula used to find the derivatives of products of two or more functions
product (multiplication) rule
157
a cell that lacks a distinct nucleus and other subcellular organelles
prokaryotic cell
158
the first stage of mitosis when chro¬mosomes with sister chromatids condense and the nuclear envelope disappears
prophase
159
a macromolecule made up of a sequence of amino acids that performs various functions in a cell
protein
160
a diagram used to predict the results of a genetic cross
Punnett square
161
a protein located on the surface or inside of a cell that can bind to a specific molecule and pro¬duce a specific biological response
receptor
162
– an allele that does not produce a char¬acteristic effect when present with a dominant allele; the trait is expressed only under homozygous conditions
recessive
163
the kind of RNA that con¬stitutes the ribosomes and provides the site for translation
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
164
a protein-ribosomal RNA complex that is the site of protein synthesis (or translation) in the cell
ribosome
165
a family of nucleic acids that are transcribed from DNA and play various essential roles in the synthesis of proteins
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
166
the chromosomes that influence sex determination, e.g., XX and XY in humans
sex chromosomes
167
the pattern of inheritance that is deter¬mined by genes located on the sex chromosomes of organisms
sex linked
168
the creation of genetical¬ly diverse offspring by the fusion of two haploid gametes
sexual reproduction
169
a homozygous recessive genetic disease that is caused by a single mutation of the hemoglobin gene; the mutation results in distor¬tions in the shape of red blood cells and multiple symptoms
sickle cell anemia
170
a type of mutation that does not change the sequence of amino acids and thus does not change the trait controlled by the affected gene
silent mutation
171
a genetic variation in a single nucleotide base in DNA that results in a difference between individuals
single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
172
a doctrine that applies the prin¬ciples of “survival of the fittest” in the context of human societies
social Darwinism
173
all the cells of the body that do not belong to the germ line
somatic cell
174
the evolution and formation of a new species
speciation
175
the basic unit of biological classification composed of individuals that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring (the biological species concept)
species
176
an undifferentiated male germ cell that gives rise to sperm through meiosis
spermatogonia
177
an array of microtubules emanating from both poles of a dividing cell during cell division and playing a role in the movement of chromosomes at nuclear division; it is named for its spindle-like shape
spindle fibers
178
an unspecialized cell that can divide infi¬nitely and be induced to become any specialized cell in a multi-cellular organism
stem cell
179
any of a family of lipids with ring struc¬tures and that primarily function as hormones
steroids
180
a triplet genetic code in mRNA that signifies the termination of translation
stop codon
181
the probability that two inde¬pendent events A or B will happen is the sum of the probability of each event
sum (addition) rule
182
the formation of two species that occurs without geographic separation
sympatric speciation
183
in cell division, the point at which two homologous chromosomes attach during prophase of meiosis I
synapses
184
the scientific discipline of naming and classifying organisms
taxonomy
185
a rare hereditary disease caused by the mutation of a gene involved in lipid metabo¬lism, which results in defective nerve cells and degeneration of the central nervous system
Tay-Sachs disease
186
the end stage of mitosis when chromo¬somes begin to disperse and the nuclear envelope reforms
telophase
187
during prophase I of meiosis, the associa¬tion of a pair of homologous chromosomes or four chromatids
tetrad
188
possessing all the genetic information and other capacities necessary to form an entire individual
totipotent
189
a variant of a characteristic found in a population
trait
190
the process by which RNA is synthe¬sized from a DNA template
transcription
191
a type of RNA that contains an anticodon and brings the amino acids to the ribo¬somes to make proteins
transfer RNA (tRNA)
192
a gene that is transferred from one species to another species using recombinant DNA technologies
transgene
193
the process by which a protein is syn¬thesized at a ribosome, using messenger RNA code and transfer RNA to carry the amino acids
translation
194
a genetic cross in which the same trait appears every time from homozygous parents
true-breeding
195
in molecular biology, a plasmid or virus that carries an inserted piece of DNA into a bacterium for cloning purposes
vector
196
a technique in which the shape of a crystallized molecule is determined using X-rays
X-ray crystallography
197
the diploid cell formed by the fertilization of male and female gametes
zygote
198
a cross or mating in which the parents differ in two independent trains
dihybrid cross
199
having 2 sets of chromosomes (one form the mother & one from the father) in a sexually reproducing organism
diploid
200
the first generation of parents
F1 generation
201
the second generation of parents
F2 generation
202
the condition of having one set of genes and one set of chromosomes in a sexually reproducing organism
haploid
203
the location of a gene in the DNA molecule
locus (pl. loci)
204
a cross or mating in which the parent differ in a single trait
monohybrid cross
205
parental generation
Parent (P) generation
206
the separation of alleles or homologous chromosomes during meiosis
segregation
207
fertilization between the sperm and the egg from the same flower
self fertilization
208
fertilization between the sperm and the egg from the same flower
self pollination
209
mating of a dominant-phenotype individual (who may be either heterozygous or homozygous) with a homozygous-recessive individual
test cross
