Habitat Management Flashcards

Question

main problems of heath management

Answer 1

Emphasis now mostly on heather Four major problems: 1. Natural succession: Under grazing; woody plants and/or bracken invade Mostly lowlands 2. Nutrient build up: Natural Fertilizers Acid rain 3. Over grazing: Grassland, mostly uplands Magic number, 2 ewes/ha in winter 4. Fragmentation: Housing, roads etc. Mostly lowlands & animals Problems compounded by interactions: Fragmentation by other problems Nutrients cause succession Over and under grazing

Answer 2

Mires (bogs and fens) are herbaceous, terrestrial ecosystems The soils are organic and water-logged The water level is at the soil surface Reed beds (fens) – considered here too

Answer 3

In a mire, the plant communities form the peat, the soil in which they grow. Peat accumulates at a rate of about one millimetre a year. Origin of the organic soil: Peat substrate Water-logged Anaerobic environment Litter does not decay Litter accumulates

Answer 4

1. Bogs: Ombrotrophic - ‘rain fed’ pH 4 Nutrient poor Sphagnum mosses, sedges and heaths 2. Fen: Minerotrophic – ‘ground water fed’ pH 5 – pH7 Nutrient richer Tall grasses, sedges and rushes

Answer 5

Two main types: Raised bogs: Shallow domes on flat land or basins Blanket bogs: Sheets on gentle slopes (10o) (and valley bogs)

Answer 6

Stages of succession: ``` Open water, to… Reed beds (swamp), to… Fen, to… +/- Fen woodland (= Carr), to finally… Bog ``` Significance of succession: Fens; short-lived so require much management Bogs; long-lived so require little management

Answer 7

General wildlife interest Natural and semi-natural habitats Fens and reed beds: Rare birds and invertebrates Bogs: Area of habitat Plus some species

Answer 8

The Raft Spider is one of the largest, and scarcest spiders in Britain. It inhabits pools on bogs and wet heaths, where it skates across the surface. If disturbed it breaks the water surface and dives. golden plover bird, bog bush cricket, common crane (fens)

Answer 9

The Raft Spider is one of the largest, and scarcest spiders in Britain. It inhabits pools on bogs and wet heaths, where it skates across the surface. If disturbed it breaks the water surface and dives. golden plover bird, bog bush cricket, common crane (fens), bitterns, marsh harrier (fens), marsh orchids

Answer 10

General: ``` General problems and solutions Modified by site and / or rare species Maintain / enhance mostly Little restoration Remember variety ```

Answer 11

reedbed, fen and acid bog habitats are generally part of the succession from open water to woodland differences between them being due to water chemistry, hydrology, geology and climate

Answer 12

focuses on the early successional stages with aims to halt or slow succession because lack of management of fens and reedbeds has led to succession and as a result lots of woodlands have sprung up with only small areas of open vegetative communities remaining.

Answer 13

bogs are generally stable and only require low levels of management or even none at all but they are threatened by peat extraction, drainage and invasion or afforestation by exotic conifers.

Answer 14

characterised by short vegetation particularly sphagna bt including mosses, sedges and dwarf shrubs. other vegetation inc trees is always due to disturbance e.g. from drainage.

Answer 15

drainage of the lagg will have an effect on the hydrology of the dome which leads to the sphagnam covered surface drying faster and the eventual colonisation by trees, pools and ridges

Answer 16

they smother large areas of level or gently sloping ground under a ‘blanket’ of peat. Also known as ‘flow’ or ‘floe’, they are the most extensive type of mire fed entirely by rainfall and snowmelt rather than groundwater. refers to ombrotrophic mires true blanket mire peat can form directly on acid nutrient poor podsols and even over bare leeched rock. the depths of the peat depends on waterlogging and stagnation reaching up to several metres deep.

Answer 17

yes but there are some evidence of man made ones as iron age agriculture may have contributed to the development of blanket peat

Answer 18

Peat is a precious resource that can take thousands of years to form and peat bogs are important habitats for a whole range of species from bog bush-crickets to hen harriers. However, our peat bogs have been overexploited by the commercial extraction of peat, particularly for horticulture, and have been irreparably damaged by drainage, afforestation and inappropriate management. Peat is still growing on some active bogs, but the rate of formation is greatly exceeded by the rate of loss. Poorly managed grazing, intensive burning and acid rain all cause erosion, while peat-cutting exposes the underlying bedrock. The subsequent loss of sponge-like blanket bog causes flash flooding and erosion downstream.

Answer 19

Drainage ditches, l lower the water table may initiate erosion and oxidation of the peat. Lowered water tables will alter the species composition of the surface vegetation and have a detrimental affect on specialist invertebrates. Drainage at the margins of bogs will lower the water table and may modify the surface patterning, such as loss of Sphagnum hollows.

Answer 20

Coniferous trees have been planted on extensive areas of blanket bog in the past. The trees will continue to affect the hydrology and species composition of adjacent areas of blanket mire as they mature and require more water. Afforestation has generally been accompanied by furrowing of the ground, and these highly destructive drainage channels become a long-lasting scar.

Answer 21

As a peat bog consists of 95-98% water held by Sphagnum peat, the water level is the most crucial aspect to consider when managing this Priority habitat type. Operations some distance away from the ombrotrophic Sphagnum communities can have a devastating effect if they are on sites within the same hydrological unit. Drainage ditches and forestry plantations will remove water from surface layers of the bog and ultimately lower the bog surface, favouring plants which grow in drier conditions, affecting any specialist invertebrate species. Wet blanket bog is of great importance to many invertebrates such as spiders and leaf-hopper bugs. Drying peat will shrink and oxidise, creating erosion problems and increasing vulnerability to fire damage, so it is essential to maintain water levels. On sites that are drying, raising the water levels should be considered. -

Answer 22

Burning destroys large numbers of invertebrates, potentially entire populations of species living wholly in the above-ground parts of plants. In acid sites it can also encourage purple moor-grass at the expense of other vegetation. Too hot a burn can kill bog-moss and burn into the peat, altering plant communities and damaging invertebrate interest. Heather management through burning appears to be especially damaging to plant-hopper bugs, sensitive species taking a long time to return. Burning should be therefore replaced with a more sympathetic form of management such as cutting or low-level grazing.

Answer 23

Pollution incidents and nutrient enrichment lead to the loss of Sphagnum bog vegetation reducing its ability to support species such as the rare Wybunbury Moss carol-rita spider Carorita limnaea.

Answer 24

prevent growth of scrub and trees If water table levels are maintained then significant scrub invasion should not present a major problem as the very wet, infertile ground conditions, altitude and exposure of the blanket bogs often makes tree or shrub growth difficult. However, in areas of bog that have already begun to dry as a result of drainage or agricultural operations, scrub invasion can be prevented by cutting or light grazing, but it is important not to overgraze. Grazing can cause problems to blanket bog habitats, causing damage to the vegetation by trampling and affecting the species composition if nutrient enrichment occurs by the deposition of dung

Answer 25

• Peat extraction Removal of peat in existing and proposed new areas • Landfill development Use of cut-over bogs for landfill • Afforestation Trees (and associated furrows) dry out neighbouring areas and act as an invasive seed source. • Drainage Neighbouring agricultural areas require lowered water levels via marginal ring-ditches and other intrusive drainage measures. Drying out the raised bog through drainage allows invasion by scrub and trees which it turn speed up the drying out process and lead to the loss of special habitat and fauna. • Water abstraction Abstraction of water within the catchment area will have an adverse effect on the hydrology of a raised bog. • Pollution Run-off from agricultural land (fertilisers and pesticides) will damage the ecology of the bog. • Livestock & game management Drainage, trampling, burning, contamination with feed and droppings • Built development (roads etc) Apart from direct impact, the natural hydrology is disrupted • Climate change - See more at: https://www.buglife.org.uk/advice-and-publications/advice-on-managing-bap-habitats/lowland-raised-bogs#sthash.olkkqB3z.dpuf

Answer 26

hydrology, prevent scrub encroachment, avoid burning and avoid grazing

Answer 27

Relatively undisturbed lowland raised bog surfaces are not uniform; they are made up of an almost continuous carpet of Sphagnum with a microtopography of hummocks and hollows providing a range of conditions that support invertebrates. It is important to minimise human activity on undisturbed raised bogs; wet Sphagnum communities are fragile and easily damaged by trampling. Shallow bog pools should never be deepened or cleared, as their invertebrate interest is likely to be far greater than any larger pool that is created.

Answer 28

Drainage for conversion to intensive agriculture Past drainage of surrounding areas of land has lowered water tables and led to drying of remnant fen habitats Water abstraction Excessive water abstraction from aquifers dries up or reduces spring line flows, lowers water tables and affects water quality Nutrient enrichment Nutrients from agricultural run-off and other sources leads to eutrophication of fen waters and a change in plant communities Afforestation Afforestation within the catchment areas can lead to drying Poor management Lack of appropriate management to prevent drying, deterioration in herb richness, scrub encroachment and succession to woodland

Answer 29

maintain structural diversity - all succession stages of fen provide important invertebrate habitats and should be retained where these occur naturally. Management should be carried out in rotation to ensure both longer and shorter vegetation is present at all times. prevent scrub encroachment

Answer 30

maintain structural diversity - all succession stages of fen provide important invertebrate habitats and should be retained where these occur naturally. Management should be carried out in rotation to ensure both longer and shorter vegetation is present at all times. prevent scrub encroachment retain areas of carr (wet woodland) which is important for wildlife and is species rich maintain water levels to keep invertebrate habitats intact

Answer 31

important for birds - 5 nationally scarce birds bittern, bearded tit, marsh harrier, cettis warbler and savis warbler breed in reedbeds. reedbeds are also important pre migratory roost sites for hirundines and winter roosts for pied wagtails. watervoles use them

Answer 32

Scrub removal Scrub encroachment should be discouraged over most of the area, but in some small areas scrub should be retained. The best method of removal is to pull out bushes, leaving small pools within the reed bed, which can support interesting invertebrates. Simply cutting scrub will have the effect of promoting thicker re-growth from stumps and may lead to an ever-increasing need for cutting. hydrology: three diff techniques - water maintained high all year - water above ground level until after birding season, dropped to below ground level then raised again in autumn - water held above ground in summer, dropped over autumn and raised in spring depends on wildlife, 1 is good for animals that need wet conditions (bitterns), 2&3 allow scrub encroachment and drying of litter which is better for other birds

Answer 33

• Loss of area Large areas of reedbed can be lost by water abstraction, land drainage and conversion to intensive agriculture • Lack of appropriate management This can include too frequent harvesting/cutting cycle, of existing reedbeds leading to drying, scrub encroachment and succession to woodland • Sea-level rise Rising sea levels on the East coast of England are expected to lead to the loss of significant areas of habitat • Pollution Pollution of freshwater supplies to the reedbed

Answer 34

same management can be used but fens have more complicated systems than reedbeds as they have a higher diversity of plant and animal species so messing with the hydrology will have more effect on the conditions plants and animals can survive in

Answer 35

Fens and reed beds: Constant management Keep all stages of succession Bogs: Minimal management if undisturbed If not, block drains and remove trees

Answer 36

Caused mostly by agriculture Severity depends on the size of fragments Severity depends on the degree isolation Severity depends on the difference in the habitats between fragments and landscape

Answer 37

reduced geneflow between populations (genetic isolation) due to large gaps of hostile habitats,barriers to movement (roads,cities etc in the way of animals), pollution, loss of food availability Four main problems: ``` Edge effects Penetration Barriers Small population sizes (allopatric speciation) Restricted foraging No annual migration No new colonization Inability to shift range ```

Answer 38

Refers mostly now to ‘true’ habitat corridors Can help reduce inbreeding depression Can help increase genetic variation ``` Potential value: Increased foraging areas Increased interbreeding Annual migrations Colonization of new areas and enhances range shifts ```

Answer 39

Maintain a diverse vegetational structure - important for range of habitats for inverts Grazing is the preferred management option for maintaining a mosaic of heathland structure - keeps areas of bare ground for inverts, scattered shrubs (various stages of succession), grassland in tussocks, he grazing habits of cattle tend to produce a more varied vegetation structure than that in sheep-grazed areas and their greater weight will suppress bracken growth and provide areas of disturbed ground. However, ungrazed areas of mature heather should be fenced off to avoid damage.

Answer 40

Continuous grazing is when cattle graze a pasture for an extended amount of time with no, or infrequent rest to the plants from grazing.

Answer 41

dvantages of this method are low fencing cost, low daily management requirements, and when stocking rate is correct, acceptable animal gains. This method is most effective where forage availability is plentiful and the manager does not wish to increase livestock numbers.

Answer 42

difficulty in controlling the timing and intensity of grazing. Another limitation of this system is during slow forage growth periods animal numbers need to be adjusted, or more acreage available for grazing. Continually grazing a pasture with too many animals will lead to reduced forage availability and quality and animal growth. A continually grazed pasture will take longer to recover after a drought than a pasture that has been rested because the plants are more stressed. Another disadvantage to continuous grazing is the limited number of forages that can withstand the grazing pressure.

Answer 43

system where a large pasture is divided into smaller paddocks allowing livestock to be moved from one paddock to the other easily. Using this method cattle are concentrated on a smaller area of the pasture for a few days then moved to another section of pasture.

Answer 44

allows the grazed paddock a rest period that permits forages to initiate regrowth, renew carbohydrate stores, and improve yield and persistency. When utilized properly, rotational grazing can help farmers increase forage productivity. Rotational grazing can help improve productivity, weight gain or milk production per acre, and overall net return to the farm. Rotational grazing allows for better manure distribution that acts as a source of nutrients to the soil. Rotational grazing also has the potential to reduce machinery cost, fuel, supplemental feeding and the amount of forage wasted.

Answer 45

the need for more fence to be constructed, time required to move cattle, and the need to have water and access to shade from each smaller paddock. The use of temporary fence is an inexpensive way to divide fields into the smaller paddocks and can be moved based upon the producers’ preference

Answer 46

Grazing is the preferred management option for maintaining a mosaic of heathland structure

Answer 47

Burning on lowland heathland is a less favourable method of management than low intensity grazing combined with rotational cutting and scraping of the soil surface to create exposures. The latter form of management will be beneficial to most invertebrate species and a more heterogeneous habitat can be created. However, on larger heathlands burning can be the most effective form of management, especially when combined with grazing. On dry heath one of the advantages of fire, if it is hot enough for a deep burn, is that it burns away the humus layer that builds up under heather, thus exposing the mineral soil that is essential to many heathland invertebrates. Mowing will not achieve this.

Answer 48

Static, flowing and man-made waters: 1. Water abstraction 2. Climate change 3. Pollution (including eutrophication) 4. Development 5. Recreation Static only: 6. Sediments: natural

Answer 49

Management in general: Head waters, lower reaches small rivers; minimum of management Lower reaches of larger rivers managed for things other than wildlife By five main techniques Some more wildlife friendly than others

Answer 50

. Water flow 2. Pollution 3. Weed control 4. Bank vegetation 5. Dredging

Answer 51

Problem: Abstraction from rivers and ground Solutions: Alternative sources Balancing reservoirs e.g. River Derwent and Carsington Water

Answer 52

Sources and problems: Plant nutrients; sewage and agrochemicals; eutrophication Poisons; sewage and industry; death of river Solutions: Clean discharges; time and place of application of agrochemicals

Answer 53

Conservation value: Food; cover; breeding sites Problems: Restricts water movement and fishing Methods of control: Cut, spray, dredge or rake weeds Control regimes: All is bad; gradual is good

Answer 54

``` Conservation value: Food; shelter and shade Problems: Access; water flow; burrowers Methods of control: Mow or graze; prune Control regimes: Uniformity is bad; variety is good ```

Answer 55

Introduction: Removes bed material to improve access or flow; straightening Problem for wildlife: Simplification; damages banks Dredging regimes: Straight; uniformity is bad Sinuous; variety is good

Answer 56

Where no other management: Minimum of intervention if clean Where other management: Manage sympathetically

Answer 57

Lowland water bodies: Man-made, polluted and small size Mesotrophic to eutrophic Upland water bodies: Natural, clean and large size Oligotrophic to mesotrophic

Answer 58

Means of management: overgrown ponds Control nutrient input: Recharge time and reed beds Limit fertilizer application Remove nutrients from water: Barley straw Remove sediments: Dredge or pump in winter Remove biomass in summer

Answer 59

Effect: Different species need different depths Problem: Natural shallowing

Answer 60

Solutions: Dredging Raking Sluices Annual fluctuations: Occur Good for amphibians

Answer 61

Source: Wave size depends on wind Wave size depends on fetch Problems: Turbidity Erosion

Answer 62

Solutions: Hard banks; but poor for wildlife Geotextiles; reefs 2m from the shore Shelterbelts: Height and width But trees causes shading

Answer 63

Source: Fishing, sailing, bird watching, etc. Problems: Movement, noise, wash, chopping, etc. Presence of people: Can be beneficial Solution zoning

Answer 64

zoning - splitting a lake or large static waterbody into no fishing sections and fishing sections allows some areas of recovery

Answer 65

almost all grasslands in the uk are dependant on processes that prevent the succession to scrub and woodland as these outcompete them and create shaded areas of light.

Answer 66

``` (A) Functional classification: Meadows (hay) and pastures Pastures into rough grazing and enclosed pastures N.B. Wet grasslands: Some meadows and enclosed pastures For birds ``` (B) floralistic acidic, mesotrophic and calcareous by agriculture semi improved, improved, unimproved Two classification systems - (A) and (B):

Answer 67

develop on nutrient poor sooils of low ph and less rich in plant species than mesotrophic and calcaerous widespread in the uplands forming the bulk of rough grazing land in the lowlands there are more species rich acid grasslands occurring on sandy and gravelly soils associated with heathland

Answer 68

soils that arent too acidic or alkaline, mainly occur on clay soils

Answer 69

Historically, not sown; so semi-natural But in the last 100 years most improved (including sowing); so increasingly artificial Now only natural and semi-natural grasslands Wildlife value: All; plants and invertebrates Wet; birds, particularly waders

Answer 70

Acidic and calcareous grasslands Rough grazings in the uplands Mesotrophic grasslands Meadows, enclosed pastures and wet grasslands

Answer 71

``` Major problem (wildlife grasslands): Succession: coarse grass to scrub ``` Major problem (farmed grasslands): Improvement: fertilizers, etc. Many grasslands have few species Minor problems: Water levels Weeds

Answer 72

grazing - grazing is a gradual form of vegetation removal - rotational vs continual, type of grazing animal cutting - sudden and large removal of vegetation, can destroy habitats, creats a uniform short grassy area, causes soil compaction from heavy machinery. can avoid killing birds by cutting fields from the inside out burning - sudden process, destructive, leaves bare patches, risks wildlife and inverts, only acceptable use of burning is to remove impalatable plants to livestock and remove invasive species such as japanese knotweed.

Answer 73

diff animals have diff grazing behaviour and selectivity, grazing animals also differ in their distribution of dung and trampling intensity, also there is differences in stocking intensity which can be detrimental to ground dwelling/nesting birds, sheep: sheep cut vegetation close to the ground and can easily lead to over or undergrazing as they dislike coarse herbage. theyre unsuitable for restorative management but cause little trampling. unsuitable for wet grassland as theyre more susceptible to disease than cattle, during the day sheep drop dung everywhere but at night they congregate on areas of short sward. cattle: cattle wrap they tongues and cut the grass but cant cut close to the ground like sheep can, they eat taller herbage than sheep, this makes them useful for restorative management as theirfeeding technique can open up small bare areas and destroy sucessive plants. however cattle are selective (wont eat tor grass) and are heavy tramplers which means their grazing is patchy which is good for inverts. higher densities of cattle produces a more even area of grass. cattle leave pats everywhere but wont feed near them which leads to more patchiness horses: selective grazers, capable of eliminating a particular species from a site so shouldnt be used on areas of high botanical interest, trampling is intermediate between sheep and cattle, they graze patchily leaving areas of short and tall swards which can create lots of diversity in areas of low botanical interest. conditions are poor for inverts mixed grazing has a danger of creating a species poor uniform area of short swards poor for plants and inverts

Answer 74

grazing - grazing is a gradual form of vegetation removal - rotational vs continual, type of grazing animal cutting - sudden and large removal of vegetation, can destroy habitats, creats a uniform short grassy area, causes soil compaction from heavy machinery. can avoid killing birds by cutting fields from the inside out Less selective, uniform turf, less disturbance, greater impact on tall herbs Cuttings; if left can swamp small plants Good and bad points: Good for enhancement Bad for invertebrates burning - sudden process, destructive, leaves bare patches, risks wildlife and inverts, only acceptable use of burning is to remove impalatable plants to livestock and remove invasive species such as japanese knotweed.

Answer 75

Major technique for enhancement is cutting Major technique for maintenance is grazing (except meadows)

Answer 76

woodland management – the whole thing takes TIME, planning ahead and thinking about timespans that go beyond a single (human) lifetime

Answer 77

Timber producing areas tend to focus on the dominant species for maximum timber quality

Answer 78

Historically woodland is managed in a number of ways depending on… Species of tree Availability of tools Necessary skills of the workforce Required ‘products’ Essentially two types – ‘high forest’ and ‘coppice’

Answer 79

A traditional approach where trees are allowed (encouraged) to grow straight and tall and form a closed canopy. Traditionally from seed, often now planted. Rotation can be as little as 15 years for some poplars and 160 years for oak. Planted at a high density and thinned (see later) Planted high forest produces even aged stands. In the past has often been clear-felled. Clear felling is now not as common for both conservation and landscape reasons most used management

Answer 80

One of the earliest forms of management Relies on the ability of most broadleaved trees to regenerate from a stump or ‘stool’. Most broadleaves will coppice, but the ‘coppice cycle’ varies between species. Coppice trees have a well established root systems and produce biomass much quicker that trees grown for seed. In the past the products were used for wood-fuel, charcoal, and building materials Neglected coppice is sometimes converted into high coppice through the process of singling, or abandoned coppice can convert to high forest in time (although the structure is less stable in this case)

Answer 81

Short rotation coppice is a reasonably new phenomenon – in vogue for the past 25 years. Often consisting of willow planted at very high density Used as a biomass fuel for power-stations. Coppice woodlands provide 7.5M Tons of biomass annually Short rotation energy crops grown on unused agricultural land could be the key for Britain to meet its biofuel targets without disrupting the food industry or the environment

Answer 82

Pollarding is specialised form of coppice designed to generate the same types of shoots but offering protection against large herbivores. rarely used now but is useful for prolonging the life of a tree, produces oaks and beeches rich in fungi and epiphytes making it desirable in lowland wood pasture

Answer 83

A form of agro-forestry combining widely spaced trees and grazing in the same area. More common in continental Europe than UK.

Answer 84

coppicing as many scarcer plants and animals are adapted to the conditions it creates, it creates a variety of habitat strutures

Answer 85

ancient lowland woodlands, upland sessile oak woodlands

Answer 86

wood pasture - the aim is to ensure the survival of ancient trees and their associated microhabitats (hollow trunks, dead wood), there should be little need for active management most pasture woods have regenerated sucessfully when grazing pressure is temporariy reduced producing varied structures and habitats. rotational grazing would be useful here. some rare lichens may become shaded if grazing is relaxed too much

Answer 87

clear fell - trees are cut in large coupes at least 1 ha and restocked by planting - cant destroy habitats, creates patchwork of even aged stands, takes decades to restore the patch to what it was before (all confiers are clear felled) shelterwood - cuts a stand in two stages, restocking by natural egeneration, first cut thins the canopy and second after seedlings have established. creates even aes stands, group fell system - small scale clear fell system with small groups of trees clearfelled 0.3ha, restocked naturally or planting, creates finer mosaic and even aged stands than clear felling selection systems - felling and regeneration are widespread and frequent, regeneration is natural, only practical for shade bearing species such as beech and lime. rare in UK

Answer 88

selection systems although rarely used in the uk, it would create rich habitats for birds but animals would be scarce as they need open ground undisturbed by machinery

Answer 89

clearfelling - can provide habitats for species associated with different stages of woodland succession because they are harvested rotationally in coupes - also stops red needle blight by creating airflow between trees and helps them to grow straighter for timber

Answer 90

Reflects the fact that our woodlands are managed now or in past history. Wooded since at least 1600 (1750 Scotland) Composed of native species Not planted – must be natural regeneration May be managed – coppiced woodland can be ASNW Structure and composition reflects location and management history. Often highly valuable both ecologically and culturally. Often highly fragmented with knock on effects of a high proportion of woodland edge rarest woodland type, highest conservation value

Answer 91

Includes a wide range of woodland types. Characterised by regeneration of locally native species. May be on abandoned moorlands, disused industrial sites, railway sidings etc. Younger woodlands tend to be of pioneer species, older post 16 woodlands might include oak, ash and beech. may provide valuable habitats, species mixture and structure

Answer 92

Includes the Forestry Commission plantations since 1919, private forestry plantations since 1960, 18th century parklands, often of non native species such as Douglas fir or Sitka spruce. Can be important for wildlife (Red squirrel; Osprey). Many now valued more for ecological value than timber value (NE England example) variable from commercial timber woodland to parkland

Answer 93

``` Essentially thinning improves quality by Reducing competition Promoting vigorous growth Removing poor quality trees Cracked Poor crowns Poor vigour Poor shape Disease or pest damage ```

Answer 94

Trees might be planted at a density of 2000-4000 per ha Target is 200 mature trees per ha Trees therefore need to be thinned out on a regular basis Thinning's can be sold or burnt (although the market is now almost non-existent) If not done then final quality is reduced. Operation takes place every 3-5 years in younger trees; every 10-15 years in older trees. More regular in CCF. Target is to remove approximately 30% of trees in the first thinning operation, followed by approximately 10% for each subsequent thinning. Trees must not be allowed to have a reduced crown as this reduces growth and ultimately yield.

Answer 95

Improves quality 2 types Formative – up to 3m in height, promoting strong straight stems High Pruning – ensuring a knot-free stem of 6m+ leads to straighter trees for timber

Answer 96

Pruning and thinning can lead to increased wind damage and wind-throw either through endemic (chronic) damage or catastrophic high winds Therefore need to consider protection for remaining trees (e.g. wind-firm edges or limited open space). Sun scorch can also be a problem on some species (e.g. Beech)

Answer 97

Drainage – poor drainage is often a sign of a poorly managed woodland Drought – affects shallow rooted species (birch, beech, larch) Frost – impossible to avoid but plant frost tolerant species in high risk areas (scots pine, cherry, birch, hornbeam, sycamore)

Answer 98

Presence of food plant is primary importance Degree of shelter is important Age of stand is important black hairstreaks need old blackthorn to survive but larvae do better on young blackthorn. Nectar is vital to the adults A place to bask is vital (a ride will do) A variety of shrubs etc. on the woodland edge will increase biodiversity

Answer 99

Breeds in two areas coppiced woodland – where there is bracken Lowland bracken dominated slopes (>50% bracken) interspersed with clearings. Some bracken is vital because it provides a very warm micro-climate.

Answer 100

Found in two main habitats Open deciduous/coppice woodlands Calcareous grasslands with little or no grazing. Foodplant is primrose (Primula vulgaris) or cowslip

Answer 101

Continuing decline in woodland management Continuing decline in the demand for woodland products Further loss of unimproved grassland Spread of bracken Recovery in rabbit numbers Inappropriate grazing (and deer grazing) Increase in summer droughts as a result of climate change. Small isolated populations are, of course, subject to genetic issues: Inbreeding Genetic stochasticity and drift Inability to adapt

Answer 102

Areas designed for sustained yield will contain many habitats suiting a wide range of beetles. Commercial forests contain little dead timber – try leaving thinned trees to decay, be untidy! Often control is more important than conservation

Answer 103

spatial: Maximise diversity if all tree age classes are present Scale is also important – large mammals need large areas – many insects don’t! Fragmentation of woodlands therefore affects species structural: Structural diversity creates niches – this creates opportunities for greater biodiversity 40-60% of birds & 65 – 70% mammals in Europe & USA breed in forests …… 20% of birds and 50% of mammals depend on old growth and associated diversity. Maintenance of old growth features is vital

Answer 104

Over the past 50 years coppice woodland has declined and is almost non-existent except for Kent and some key conservation woodlands. Changes to habitat affect some bird species, lack of new woodland and open woodland (coppice and new plantation) affects species requiring that habitat. Many new plantations and woodlands consist of conifers rather than broadleaves. This controls bird species in a similar way to insect species. New conifer plantations are good for some species (e.g. black grouse) but support few species once mature.

Answer 105

grazing, forestry, tourism, ecotourism, landscape value, management for water, management for energy, social and wellbeing effects, existence value, wildlife value, recreational value. This may be linked to re-wilding - as discussed in the associated session. Some critical discussion on how to promote both biodiversity and economic sustainability should follow - this is an emotive issue for some and is likely to generate some personal opinion, this is encouraged as long as it is backed up with facts or data. There should be a summary of the information presented and, where appropriate, a conclusion.

Answer 106

These include very large expanses of blanket bog and upland heathland, calcareous grasslands, fens and swamps,

Answer 107

the uplands have suffered huge losses of semi-natural habitat and associated species. Since the 1950s, species-poor acid grasslands, 'improved' hill pastures and conifer plantations have replaced many areas of semi-natural habitat due mainly to afforestation and improvements made for agriculture and game rearing. There have also been widespread reductions in the extent and quality of surviving areas of upland habitats due to over-grazing, inappropriate burning, peat extraction, and quarrying, combined with extensive atmospheric pollution.

Answer 108

grasslands - acid and calcaerous, heathland, wetlands

Answer 109

``` Positives: • Increase diversity • Protect species from over harvesting • Preserve entire ecosystems • Increase fish stocks and other important food stocks • Conserve specific key species • Recreation • Control pests and invasive species • Preservation of medical and genetic resources • Prevention of land erosion • Nutrient cycling • Carbon sequestration and climatic regulation ``` Negatives: • Social issues • Loss of income from certain parties – in particular small scales fishermen • Displacement of local human populations – Chagos MPA as an example • Difficult to design an effective one • Expensive to manage effectively • Can’t predict how the animals will use them • Linkage between MPAS • Potential for a species ‘sink’ • Political issues – oil/gas exploration

Answer 110

* Habitat management for conservation can maintain, enhance or restore biodiversity. Students should explain the differences: maintain what is already there; enhance what is already there; restore what was once there. * Of the three, the restoration of biodiversity is the least common, although an ever increasing number of projects attempt to do this; for example on ‘brown-field’ sites. * The majority of habitat management is designed to enhance biodiversity. Many habitats are degraded and management to enhance biodiversity is appropriate. * In some habitats – particularly those in the early stages of ecological succession – management is designed to maintain the current biodiversity by holding ecological succession at bay. * Not all habitats are equally amenable to restoration; those in the early stages of ecological succession (for example – grasslands; salt-marsh, etc.) more so than climax communities. * True climax oak woodland is less amenable to complete restoration because of the time-scales involved and the high level of biodiversity. Secondary woodland is the inevitable outcome. * Some habitats require less management than others. On the whole early stage ecological succession habitats require less habitat management than ecological climatic climax communities.

Answer 111

Diversity really is a key word when it comes to habitat management as the greater the variety the greater the overall biodiversity. • The greater the diversity of different habitats on-site the greater the total number of plant species. • The greater the diversity of plant species on-site the greater the diversity of invertebrate species; and the greater the diversity of bird species that feed on the invertebrates, etc. • However, a balance needs to be achieved between habitat diversity and habitat area. Small habitat areas will have fewer species than larger ones. • The greater the diversity of structural layers on the site – ground layer, herb layer, shrub layer, and tree layer – the greater the overall biodiversity. • The greater the diversity of management techniques the greater the overall biodiversity.

Answer 112

* Heathland is not a climax community but an intermediate stage of ecological succession. * To maintain heathland in this intermediate stage of ecological succession it has to be intensively managed; controlling scrub and tree invasion. * Heather Calluna vulgaris is one of the defining species on heathlands. Heather can live for more than 30 years and four distinct growth stages can be defined: Pioneer (3-10 years) – seedling stage; Building (7-13 years) - dense dome stage; Mature (12-30 years) - centre opens stage; Degenerate (>30yrs) – collapse stage. * A wide range of heathland invertebrate and vertebrate species require Heather at each of its different growth stages. * Heather needs to be managed to maintain a patchwork of these different growth stages. Heather management techniques include: * Grazing: Species and grazing density, etc. * Burning: Rotating patch system. * Clearance by hand: Labour intensive; use of chemicals; removal of debris, etc. * Clearance using machinery: Efficient but expensive; damage to fragile heath, etc. * At Cannock the Heather is managed using a rotational patchwork system and a piece of cutting machinery dedicated for the purpose.

Answer 113

* Static and flowing water bodies need to be managed in quite different ways. * Static water bodies (ponds and lakes) are ‘closed systems’. * Flowing water bodies (streams and rivers) are ‘open systems’. * Five main management techniques for water bodies; each technique is used to a greater or lesser extent dependent on whether the water body is static or flowing: * 1. Water flow * 2. Pollution * 3. Weed control * 4. Bank vegetation * 5. Dredging * Static water bodies are vulnerable to ecological succession and drying out and so require more intensive management. * Flowing water bodies are much less vulnerable to ecological succession and drying out and so require less intensive management.

Answer 114

* The UK is a sparsely wooded country: 11.5% of Great Britain is covered with trees. Only 1.2% of GB is ancient semi-natural woodland, a valuable and irreplaceable natural resource. Ancient semi-natural woodland, and plantations on ancient woodland sites, are a priority for conservation. * Many woods are threatened by neglect. The reintroduction of management is critical where species of open woodlands are in serious decline or where spread of invasive non-native species threatens long-established vegetation communities. * Issues of neglect and restoration are addressed through Woodland Habitat Action Plans (HAPs). Several woodland types are Priority Habitats under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP): Lowland beech and yew woodland; Lowland wood-pasture and parkland; Native pine woodlands; Upland mixed ashwoods; Upland oakwood; and Wet woodland. * Coppicing: Traditional woodland management technique. * Coppiced trees are cut off at ground level. Divide wood into coupes of about 0.5 ha. Cut in rotation over 15 years. Cut adjacent coupes next year. Remove wood or pile up. * Coppicing is hard to reinstate after a long period of woodland neglect. However, there are clear benefits in the form of increased biodiversity. * Coppicing is slowly being reinstated as a woodland management process as the market for the woody material harvested also develops; increasingly used for natural fencing, stakes, ‘pea-sticks’, etc.

Answer 115

* Classification is a prerequisite to structuring knowledge and developing our understanding of the natural world. * A strong and consistent base of classification also provides an important tool for habitat management and nature conservation. * It is vital to be able to identify and record species, ecological communities and habitat types of interest that are under threat so that they can be related to a legal framework to ensure their protection. * Classification also provides a language through which data can be communicated at a national and international level. * There are many ways of describing the vegetation, but three main groups: Physiognomy; appearance, as in remote sensing. Structure - tree or shrub. Floristics - species present. * National Vegetation Classification (NVC) scheme is one of the most widely accepted and used although there are many others, including Phase 1 Habitat Classification. * All have different strengths and weaknesses: Scope (Single ecosystem to comprehensive); Strengths (Basic to complex classification); Weaknesses (Basic to complex classification).

Answer 116

* Heathland is not a climax community but an intermediate stage of ecological succession. * To maintain heathland in this intermediate stage of ecological succession it has to be intensively managed; controlling scrub and tree invasion. * Heather Calluna vulgaris is one of the defining species on heathlands. Heather can live for more than 30 years and four distinct growth stages can be defined: Pioneer (3-10 years) – seedling stage; Building (7-13 years) - dense dome stage; Mature (12-30 years) - centre opens stage; Degenerate (>30yrs) – collapse stage. * A wide range of heathland invertebrate and vertebrate species require Heather at each of its different growth stages. * Heather needs to be managed to maintain a patchwork of these different growth stages. Heather management techniques include: * Grazing: Species and grazing density, etc. * Burning: Rotating patch system. * Clearance by hand: Labour intensive; use of chemicals; removal of debris, etc. * Clearance using machinery: Efficient but expensive; damage to fragile heath, etc.

Answer 117

* Relevant pathogen/host combinations. * Elm/Dutch Elm Disease. * Oak (plus wide range of other woody species)/Sudden Oak Death. * Ash/Ash Dieback. * Good plant hygiene, vigilance and destruction of infected material (without transporting it round the country first). * Screening for species and varieties that show some resistance or tolerance to disease. Propagating them, cuttings, micropropogation; potential to use in breeding programmes, but very slow process, while pathogen can evolve virulence rapidly. Mature tree may not behave as seedling so early screening problematic. * Fungicides applications, protectant or systemic, work on trunk injection technology. But difficult to get fungicide into xylem where pathogen often resides. Plant often blocks xylem in any case in response to infection. Pathogens can evolve resistance to many fungicides. (One Fungicide being tried is combination of a dithiocabamate and metalaxyl, so may have a longer useful life than one chemical on its own.) * Experiments using mulches to prevent disease spread from pathogen surviving in leaf litter and soil. Use of some saprophytic beneficial fungi, - biological control. Copper containing membranes, heat treated wood shavings, chemical soil sterilants. * Investigating time of year/weather patterns which are conducive to disease spread in order to focus control attempts. * Legislation to ban imports and movement of potentially infected plants, but disease already here. Spores may be able to cross the channel, especially if aided by migrating birds and insects. * Difficult/impossible to contain if disease has windborne spores. Controlling Elm bark beetle was potentially easier, but even that failed. * Full extent of problem will not be revealed until spring.

Answer 118

Diversity really is a key word when it comes to habitat management as the greater the variety the greater the overall biodiversity. • The greater the diversity of different habitats on-site the greater the total number of plant species. • The greater the diversity of plant species on-site the greater the diversity of invertebrate species; and the greater the diversity of bird species that feed on the invertebrates, etc. • However, a balance needs to be achieved between habitat diversity and habitat area. Small habitat areas will have fewer species than larger ones. • The greater the diversity of structural layers on the site – ground layer, herb layer, shrub layer, and tree layer – the greater the overall biodiversity. • The greater the diversity of management techniques the greater the overall biodiversity.

Answer 119

There is not obvious single appropriate answer to this question and students might choose to take it in a number of equally acceptable directions. Answers might define different types of woodland and the key features of them, including ASNW, coppice, high forest wood pasture etc. This is OK but defining woodland types will not be sufficient to answer the question unless it is tied into a strategy at some point. Answers might introduce the major factors that control populations of woodland birds and butterflies; this includes both the tree species composition and the structure of the woodland – perhaps linked to the premise that diversity begets diversity. Good answers are also likely to provide commentary on changes in the distribution of birds and butterflies over recent history – the data was provided in the lecture and additional material has been made available online. This may elicit an evaluation of the problems currently facing woodland species; this is pretty clear cut for many woodland butterfly species which have declined catastrophically in the past 50 due to the lack of coppice and other management that provides early stage woodland (e.g. high brown, pearl bordered fritillaries) but has been beneficial for other species (e.g. speckled wood). Specialist bird populations have also declined although the reasons are far less obvious. Students might look at a range of management options that could influence bird and butterfly ecology. These include, inter alia, planting new woodland, removal of less biodiversity-friendly woodlands and bringing undermanaged woodland into production. Some of the better answers might discuss, for example, where new woodlands should be created to maximise biodiversity benefit, or who owns new woodlands (there is growing evidence that this is one of the key issues that ultimately drives biodiversity levels). Additionally, there are a range of other scenario’s that might be brought in here, including which species to plant, harvest regimes (clear fell –v- continuous cover), enhancing connectivity and stimulating demand (as there are very limited funds available for managing woodland without an economic incentive). Some answers may look at woodland grant schemes for supporting these initiatives. This would also be acceptable and has the potential for a good answer as these are unlikely to be explored in great depth in in either the lecture sessions or associated field trip. As with most level 6 answers, a sensible structure, cogent flow and demonstration of reading around the subject will be required for top marks to be given.

Answer 120

Habitat management for conservation can maintain, enhance or restore biodiversity. Students should explain the differences: maintain what is already there; enhance what is already there; restore what was once there. • Of the three, the restoration of biodiversity is the least common, although an ever increasing number of projects attempt to do this; for example on ‘brown-field’ sites. • The majority of habitat management is designed to enhance biodiversity. Many habitats are degraded and management to enhance biodiversity is appropriate. • In some habitats – particularly those in the early stages of ecological succession – management is designed to maintain the current biodiversity by holding ecological succession at bay. • Not all habitats are equally amenable to restoration; those in the early stages of ecological succession (for example – grasslands; salt-marsh, etc.) more so than climax communities. • True climax oak woodland is less amenable to complete restoration because of the time-scales involved and the high level of biodiversity. Secondary woodland is the inevitable outcome. • Some habitats require less management than others. On the whole early stage ecological succession habitats require less habitat management than ecological climatic climax communities.

Answer 121

* Grassland is not a climax community but an early stage of ecological succession. * To maintain grassland in this early stage of ecological succession it has to be intensively managed to controlling scrub and tree invasion. * Grazing is one of several management options. Need to consider what species to use and at what grazing density. There are distinct costs and benefits of this technique. * Burning is a second option: Rotating patch system. There are distinct costs and benefits of this technique. * Cutting by hand: Labour intensive; issues over the removal of cut grass, etc. There are distinct costs and benefits of this technique. * Cutting using machinery: Efficient but expensive; damage to fragile grassland, etc. There are distinct costs and benefits of this technique. * Grazing is a traditional technique and is often the preferred option; however, this has to be balanced with many other factors. * Grazing creates sward diversity as the grazing animals are selective. * Grazing comes with many potential problems; fencing the animals; control of the animals; grazing density; faeces; trampling damage; stock management out of season; food and water supply in winter; etc.

Answer 122

* Introduce the issue * Briefly describe the trends shown in graph 1 (although an answer that only does this will fail) and differentiate between generalist and specialist birds, demonstrate some background knowledge underpinning the data (such as knowledge of individual species trends). * Describe major changes in woodland management * Overall increase in population status of generalists * Decline overall and especially from the late 1980’s onwards * Substantial decline in specialist * Recent recovery * Critically evaluate how changes in woodland management may have led to the trends including: * There is no certain single causative factor but a range of interacting issues * Changes in woodland structure are implicated due to * Aging of woodlands generally * Lack of management increasing canopy and reducing understory species * Overgrazing by deer * Point to other relevant potential management causes e.g. * Grey squirrel population potentially impacts some species (e.g. hawfinch, lesser spotted woodpecker) * Be critical about the confidence of the impact of woodland management and point out other issues affecting some species (e.g. migration issues)

Answer 123

* Habitat management for conservation is aimed at the maintenance, enhancement or restoration of biodiversity. * Ecological succession is the stages a habitat passes through until it reaches the climatic climax for that particular ecological community. * Many habitats being managed for their biodiversity are those in the early stages of ecological succession. * All communities - except climatic climax communities – go through ecological succession and so for habitats in early successional stages habitat management is primarily designed to maintain the current biodiversity by holding ecological succession at bay. * Some habitats require less management than others. On the whole early stage ecological succession habitats require less habitat management than ecological climatic climax communities. * Nutrient accumulation: A natural part of succession but man has increased the nutrient supply. Speeds up succession and creates new communities. * The manipulation of ecological succession could be seen as a main goal of habitat management. * However, diversity is also a key word when it comes to habitat management as the greater the variety the greater the overall biodiversity. * The greater the diversity of different habitats on-site the greater the total number of plant species. * The greater the diversity of plant species on-site the greater the diversity of invertebrate species; and the greater the diversity of bird species that feed on the invertebrates, etc. * Even in communities that are at their climatic climax and hence not going through such active ecological succession, habitat management can still play an important role in the enhancement of biodiversity. * Habitat management can create associated habitats such as ponds, rides, glades, banks, etc., which can greatly enhance the overall biodiversity of the site. * Habitat management can create disturbance; many habitats need this; space for regeneration. Creates a patchwork of ecological successional stages. Creates structural diversity. Prevents local ecological climax. However, too much disturbance is harmful. * Habitat management aims to create a variety of habitats, at a range of ecological successional stages, using a variety of different management techniques.

Answer 124

``` Pros • Increase diversity • Protect species from over harvesting • Preserve entire ecosystems • Increase fish stocks and other important food stocks • Conserve specific key species • Recreation • Control pests and invasive species • Preservation of medical and genetic resources • Prevention of land erosion • Nutrient cycling • Carbon sequestration and climatic regulation ``` Cons • Social issues • Loss of income from certain parties – in particular small scales fishermen • Displacement of local human populations – Chagos MPA as an example • Difficult to design an effective one • Expensive to manage effectively • Can’t predict how the animals will use them • Linkage between MPAS • Potential for a species ‘sink’ • Political issues – oil/gas exploration

Answer 125

* The UK is a sparsely wooded country: 11.5% of Great Britain is covered with trees. Only 1.2% of GB is ancient semi-natural woodland, a valuable and irreplaceable natural resource. Ancient semi-natural woodland, and plantations on ancient woodland sites, are a priority for conservation. * Many woods are threatened by neglect. The reintroduction of management is critical where species of open woodlands are in serious decline or where spread of invasive non-native species threatens long-established vegetation communities. * Issues of neglect and restoration are addressed through Woodland Habitat Action Plans (HAPs). Several woodland types are Priority Habitats under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP): Lowland beech and yew woodland; Lowland wood-pasture and parkland; Native pine woodlands; Upland mixed ashwoods; Upland oakwood; and Wet woodland. * The selective felling of trees to create rides and glades can enhance overall species diversity. * A ride is a linear woodland opening, such as a track. * A glade is a circular woodland opening. * Rides and glades allow more sunlight to reach the ground and can stimulate the growth of a rich ground flora; enhancing overall invertebrate diversity. * The orientation of the ride needs to be considered in relation to the rising and setting of the sun. Creates microclimatic differences; light levels; temperature differences; water availability; etc. * However, rides and glades will create woodland edge and consequently a potentially wide range of negative ‘edge effects’. * Both the positive and negative aspects of rides and glades need to be considered in woodland management.

Habitat Management Flashcards

(149 cards)