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HAN 202 > HAN 202 Test 2 > Flashcards

HAN 202 Test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

renal cortex

A

a glandular superficial region

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2
Q

2 parts of a nephron

A
  • renal corpuscle

- renal tubule

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3
Q

juxtamedullary nephrons

A
  • long loops
  • deep into the medulla
  • outside the cortex
  • production of concentrated urine
  • efferent arteriole supplies vasa recta
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4
Q

nephron capillary beds: peritubular capillaries

A
  • low pressure
  • porous
  • meandering
  • associated with cortical nephron
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5
Q

nephron capillary beds: vasa recta

A
  • long and straight vessels loops of Henle
  • juxtamedullary nephrons
  • formation of concentrated urine
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6
Q

renal tubule

A
  • glomerular capsule
  • proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)- reabsorption and secretion
  • descending and ascending limbs
  • distal convoluted tubule- secretion
  • collecting duct- receives filtrate from many nephrons
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7
Q

juxtaglomerular complex

A
  • one per nephron
  • regulation of filtrate formation and BP
  • distal portion of the ascending limb of the loop of henle
  • AFFERENT (sometimes efferent) arteriole
  • granular cells in the AFFERENT arteriole that secrete renin
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8
Q

juxtaglomerular complex- macular dense cells

A

-ascending limb of tubule

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9
Q

filtration membrane

A
  • fenestrated endothelium (pores) of the glomerular capillaries
  • visceral membrane of the glomerular capsule (podocytes)
  • basement membrane- negatively charged basement membrane repels large plasma proteins
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10
Q

3 glomerular filtration rate factors

A
  • net filtration pressure
  • total surface area (large)
  • membrane permeability
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11
Q

extrinsic controls: sympathetic nervous system

A
  • under extreme stress (low BP shock - need to maintain BP):
  • norepinephrine and epinephrine are released
  • constriction of afferent arterioles -> inhibit filtration of afferent arterioles -> inhibit filtration -> renin is released
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12
Q

angiotensin 2

A
    1. constricts arteriolar smooth muscle, causing MAP to rise
    1. triggers aldosterone secretion from adrenal cortex- stimulates the reabsorption of Na+ (Na moves into blood, water follows, conserves blood volume)
    1. stimulates the hypothalamus to release ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and activates the thirst center
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13
Q

resabsorptive capabilities of renal tubules and collecting ducts

A
  • PCT- site of most reabsorption (ions, water, nutrients)
  • loop of henle- descending limb- H20
  • ascending limb- Na, K, Cl
  • DCT and collecting duct:
  • hormonally regulated
  • Na- aldosterone
  • water- ADH
  • Ca- parathyroid hormone
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14
Q

diuretics

A
  • chemicals that enhance the urinary output
  • osmotic diuretics- substances not reabsorbed (e.g. high glucose in a diabetic patients, water follows glucose)
  • ADH inhibitors such as alcohol
  • substances that inhibit Na reabsorption and obligatory H2O reabsorption such as caffeine and many drugs
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15
Q

steroids

A

-gonadal and adrenocortical

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16
Q

mechanisms of hormone action

A
    1. alter plasma membrane permeability of membrane potential by opening or closing ion channels
    1. stimulate synthesis of proteins or regulatory molecules
    1. activate or deactivate enzymes systems
    1. induce secretory activity
    1. stimulate mitosis
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17
Q

3 plasma membrane components

A
  • receptor
  • g protein
  • enzyme
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18
Q

adrenal cortex

A
  • zona glomerulosa- mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
  • zona fasciculata- glucocorticoids (cortisol) -> in response to ATCH
  • zona reticularis- gonadocorticoids
  • mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids -> long term stress
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19
Q

thyrotropin

A

thyroid stimulating hormone

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20
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticoptropin)

A
  • stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids (glucosteroids)
  • regulation of ACTH release:
  • triggered by hypothalamic corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH) in a daily rhythm
  • internal and external factors such as fever, hypoglycemia, and stressors can alter the release of CRH
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21
Q

ADH

A
  • if solute concentration is high -> ADH is synthesized and released
  • ADH targets collecting ducts and inhibits urine formation
  • ex. (dehydration) water loss -> high osmotic pressure of blood stimulates hypothalamus -> posterior lobe of pituitary -> ADH secretion -> kidney -> water retention -> osmotic pressure decreases -> inhibits release to hypothalamus
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22
Q

thyroid gland

A

-colloid (thyroglobulin + iodine) stored in the lumen of the follicles and is the precursor of T3/T4

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23
Q

parathyroid

A
  • four to eight tiny glands located behind thyroid (not related)
  • contain chief cells that secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH)
  • low levels of this hormone will result in tetany
  • PTH activates osteoclasts
  • reabsorption in kidney tubules
  • promotes kidney’s activation of vitamin D which increases Ca2+ absorption from food
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24
Q

cushing syndrome

A

-increase in glucocorticoid from ACTH-releasing pituitary tumor or from clinical administration of glucocorticoid drugs

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25
Q

addison’s disease

A
  • deficits in glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids
  • lose weight
  • hypotension
  • dehydration
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26
Q

adrenal medulla

A
  • chromaffin cells secrete epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine (20%)
  • epinephrine- metabolic activity, bronchial dilation, blood flow
  • norepinephrine- peripheral vasoconstriction and BP
  • short term stress
27
Q

pancreas

A
  • acinar cells- (exocrine) - enzyme for digestion
  • pancreatic islets- (endocrine)
  • alpha cells- glucagon (hyperglycemic) -> glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis
  • beta cells- insulin (hypoglycemic)
28
Q

endocrine gland

A

-a ductless gland that empties its hormone into the extracellular fluid, from which it enters the blood

29
Q

essential fatty acids- lipids

A
  • omega-3 and omega-6
  • found in most vegetable oils
  • cannot be synthesized by the liver
30
Q

use of lipids

A
  • absorption- fat soluble vitamins
  • fuel- hepatocytes and muscle
  • cell membranes and myelin sheath
  • fatty deposits
  • regulatory function of PROSTAGLANDINS- control BP, MM, inflammation
  • cholesterol- stabilizes plasma membranes and precursor of bile salts and steroid hormones
31
Q

uses for proteins

A
  • structural material- keratin, collagen, elastin, muscle proteins
  • most functional molecules- enzymes, some hormones
  • nitrogen balance- rate of protein synthesis = rate of breakdown
  • hormonal controls- anabolic hormones (GH, sex hormones) accelerate protein synthesis
32
Q

how many amino acids can the body produce

A

12/20

-8 are essential

33
Q

insoluble and soluble vitamins

A
  • vitamins are coenzymes
  • water soluble- BC -> need to be ingested daily
  • fat soluble- ADE and K -> stored in body except K
34
Q

minerals

A
  • calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium salts -> harden bone
  • iron -> oxygen binding to hemoglobin
  • iodine-> thyroid hormone synthesis
  • sodium and chloride -> electrolytes
  • Na -> fluid retention and high BP
35
Q

3 stages of metabolism

A
  • digestion, absorption and transport to tissues
  • cellular processing (cytoplasm) -> anabolism into proteins, carbs, or lipids OR catabolism into intermediates
  • oxidative (mitochondria) breakdown of intermediates into CO2, water, and ATP
36
Q

Krebs (citric acid) cycle

A
  • mitochondrial matrix
  • fueled by pyruvic acid and fatty acids
  • pyruvic acid is broken down into CO2 in a series of energy extracting reactions
  • breakdown products of fats and proteins can also enter the cycle
  • primary roles is to generate electrons (H)
  • transitional phase- 2 NADH* and 2 CO2
  • 2 ATP
  • 4 CO2
  • 6 NADH*
  • 2 FADH*
    • electron transport
37
Q

forms of breaking down and synthesizing glucose and glycogen

A
  • glucogenesis- glycogen formation when glucose supplies exceed need for ATP synthesis -> liver and muscle
  • glycogenolysis- glycogen breakdown in response to low blood glucose
  • gluconeogenesis- glucose synthesis from noncarbohydrate molecules (glycerol and amnio acids) -> liver
  • lipogenesis- triglyceride synthesis when ATP and glucose levels are high (glucose -> fat)
  • lipolysis- converts fats to glycerol and fatty acids for fuel -> liver, cardiac, and skeletal muscle
38
Q

lipid metabolism

A
  • fat catabolism yields 9 kcal per gram (vs 4 kcal per gram of carbohydrate or protein)
  • most concentrated source of energy
  • blood glucose- energy for a few minutes
  • glycogen stores- energy for a day
  • lipid stores- 30-40 days
  • lipolysis into fatty acids and glycerol
  • glucose produces 32 ATP
  • common fat produces 463 ATP
  • only triglycerides are routinely oxidized for energy
  • glycerol pathway- glycerol enters into glycolysis
  • fatty acid pathway- fatty acids enter the kreb (citric acid) cycle
39
Q

protein metabolism

A
  • amino acids are recycled
  • proteins are NOT stored in the body
  • excess proteins are oxidized for energy OR converted to fat for storage
  • transamination (NH2 switched from amino acid to keto acid) -> converted to: pyruvic acid -> keto acid intermediate of krebs cycle
  • deamination of AA is necessary for the carbon skeleton to enter catabolic pathways
  • oxidative deamination- amine of glutamic acid is removed as ammonia and combined with CO2 to form urea
  • keto acid modification- keto acids formed are altered so they can easily enter krebs
  • the nitrogenous compounds -> waste products
40
Q

absorptive state (FED)

A
  • 4 hours after eating
  • anabolism exceeds catabolism
  • glucose converted to glycogen or fat
  • glycerol and fatty acids converted to triglycerides -> adipose tissue
  • amino acids are used in protein synthesis and excess is deaminated -> stored as fat or used for ATP
  • insulin is in control
  • STORAGE
41
Q

post absorptive state

A
  • catabolism exceeds anabolism
  • utilizes glycogen and fat stores first -> then move to muscle protein
  • glycogenolysis in liver and muscle
  • lipolysis in adipose and liver
  • glycerol used for gluconeogenesis in liver
  • glucagon is released -> glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
  • proteins -> amino acids
  • glycogen -> glucose
  • triglycerides -> glycerol and fatty acids
42
Q

the process whereby excess glucose is stored in cells

A

-glucogenesis

43
Q

hepatocytes

A
  • process nearly every class of nutrient
  • regulate plasma cholesterol levels
  • store vitamins and minerals
  • metabolize alcohol, drugs, hormones, and bilirubin
44
Q

lipoproteins

A
  • transport water insoluble cholesterol and triglycerides in blood
  • VLDLs- transport triglycerides from liver to peripheral tissue (adipose)
  • LDLs- (bad)- transport cholesterol to peripheral tissues for membranes, storage, or hormonal synthesis
  • HDLs- (good)- transport excess cholesterol from peripheral tissue to liver to be broken down and secreted into bile
  • unsaturated fatty acids- enhance catabolism of cholesterol
  • saturated fatty acids- enhance synthesis of cholesterol
45
Q

BMI

A

weight x 705/height (inch)^2

46
Q

short term vs long term regulation of food intake

A

SHORT TERM
-vagus nerve suppresses hunger center
-increased nutrients in blood suppress eating
-ingesting sugar sets of the brains reward (pleasure) center releasing dopamine, this may be genesis for overeating
-gut hormones (e.g. insulin and CCK) depress hunger
LONG TERM
-leptin secreted by fat cells in response to increased body fat mass -> lowered appetite

47
Q

sperm penetration

A
  • sperms needs to pass 2 layers: corona radiata and zone pellucida
  • sperm is capacitated
  • acrosomal process forms and binds to receptor on zona pellucida
  • Ca levels within the sperm increase
  • Ca activates oocyte to prepare for 2nd meiotic division and…
  • cortical reaction- zonal inhibiting proteins (ZIPS) to prevent other sperm from entering
48
Q

evolution of zygote

A
  • zygote
  • blastomeres (36 hours) - 2-8 cells
  • morula (72 hours)- 16 or more cells
  • blastocyst (4-5 days)- fluid filled hollow sphere -> this reaches the uterus to implant
49
Q

blastocyst- two types

A
  • trophoblast cells- single layer of flat cells that are immunosuppressive and participate in PLACENTA formation
  • inner cell mass- becomes the EMBRYONIC disc
50
Q

implantation

A
  • blastocyst floats for 2-3 days- nourished by uterine secretions
  • implantation begins 6-7 days after ovulation
  • trophoblast adheres to the endometrium
  • secrete enzymes which irritate the endometrium
  • if implantation fails the blastocyst is aborted
  • a minimum of 2/3 of zygotes fail to implant
51
Q

human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)

A
  • secreted by trophoblast cells, and later the chorion
  • causes corpus luteum to continue to secrete estrogen and progesterone
  • hCG rises until end of 2nd month -> placenta begins to secrete
52
Q

placentation

A
    1. embryonic tissues- the chorion (develop from the inner cell mass) (baby)
    1. maternal tissue -> decidua basalis (comes from mom)
  • mother and baby’s blood supply lie close but do NOT intermix
53
Q

chorionic villi

A

-grow into blood-filled lacunae (maternal)

54
Q

gastrulation

A
  • during implantation, the blastocyst starts to convert to a gastrula
  • inner cell mass develops into the embryonic disc (subdivides into epiblast and hypoblast)
  • extraembryonic membranes develop (week 3)
    1. embryonic disc (2 layer) becomes a 3 layered embryo (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm)
    1. appearance of primitive streak (dorsal groove)
    1. notochord: mesodermal cells and form axial support
55
Q

extraembryonic membranes

A
    1. amnion- form amnionic sac
    1. yolk sac- forms part of digestive tube
    1. allantois- umbilical cord
    1. chorion- helps form the placenta
  • all formed within first 2-3 weeks of development
56
Q

organogenesis

A
  • formation of body organs at 8th week
  • end of embryonic period
  • neurulation is the first event
  • gives rise to brain and spinal cord
  • neural plate folds inward as a neural groove and fuse into neural tube
  • neural crest cells- cranial, spinal, and sympathetic ganglia, and adrenal medulla
57
Q

fetal blood circulation

A
  • first blood cells arise in the yolk sac
  • by the end of the 3rd week embryo has a system of paired vessels and can hear babys heart beat
  • unique vascular modifications
  • **umbilical arteries (deoxygenated blood) and umbilical vein (oxygenated blood)
58
Q

relaxin

A

-relaxin- (placenta) causes pelvic ligaments and the pubic symphysis to relax to ease birth passage

59
Q

tidal volume

A
  • increases
  • dyspnea
  • in later pregnancy
60
Q

labor

A
  • fetal secretion of cortisol stimulates the placenta to secrete more estrogen
  • causes production of oxytocin receptors
  • oxytocin causes placenta to produce prostaglandins -> vigorous contractions
  • surfactant protein A from fetal lungs causes softening of the cervix
    1. dilation- engagement of head; 10 cm
    1. expulsion- crowning and delivery
    1. placental- delivery of placenta 30 mins after
61
Q

neonatal period

A
  • 4 weeks after birth
  • APGAR:
  • heart rate
  • respiration
  • color
  • muscle tone
  • reflexes
  • 0-2 points each
  • 8-10 score is healthy
62
Q

first breath

A
  • increase CO2 -> central acidosis -> stimulates respiratory control centers to trigger the first inspiration
  • surfactant in alveolar fluid helps reduce surface tension
  • respiratory rate- about 45 per minute for first two weeks, then declines
  • premies usually put on respirators, lungs still immature
63
Q

letdown reflex

A
  • oxytocin causes this
  • actual ejection of milk from mammary glands
  • colostrum- yellowish secretion rich in vitamin A, protein, minerals, and IgA antibodies -> released in the first 2-3 days

HAN 202 (16 decks)

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