Hazards, Disaster And Vulnerability Flashcards
1
Q
What is a hazard?
A
A perceived natural event that has the potential to threaten both life and property.
2
Q
What is a disaster?
A
The realisation of a hazard when it causes a significant impact on a vulnerable population.
3
Q
When does a hazard become a disaster?
A
-10 or more people are killed
-100 or more people are affected
CRED
4
Q
What does Degg’s model represent?
A
That when a hazard and a vulnerable population are combined, a disaster is caused.
5
Q
What is the hazard-risk formula?
A
Risk= Hazard x Vulnerability / Capacity to cope
6
Q
Why do governments use the hazard-risk formula?
A
Use it to measure risk based upon a combination of factors.
7
Q
What is resilience?
A
The ability to protect lives, livelihoods and infrastructure from destruction and restore areas after a natural hazard.
8
Q
What are some HUMAN SOCIAL factors affecting vulnerability?
A
- People without access to education
- Communities with poor healthcare
- Poor quality housing
- Age of population
9
Q
What are some HUMAN ECONOMIC factors affecting vulnerability?
A
- Level of wealth
- Lack of income opportunities
10
Q
What are some HUMAN POLITICAL factors affecting vulnerability?
A
- Existence and enforcement of building codes and regulations
- Efficiency of emergency services and response teams
- Existence of public education and practised hazard responses
- Level of corruption of governments officials and businesses
- Existence of disaster preparedness plans
- The quality of infrastructure
11
Q
What are some HUMAN PHYSICAL factors affected vulnerability?
A
- Rapid urbanisation creates a need for more housing
- The accessibility of an area
- Areas with high population density tend to have poorer quality housing
12
Q
What is failure of development?
A
Less-developed counties are generally more vulnerable to hazard events because they tend to have other, more pressing problems. This means that they focus and spend less on disaster preparation.
13
Q
How does age link to resilience?
A
- Children and the elderly are likely to suffer much more from a range of hazards
- 66% of world’s population aged over 60 live in less-developed regions
14
Q
What is the overall risk to the elderly in Myanmar and Japan?
A
- Myanmar is ranked 7th out of 109 nations (very high risk to population)
- Japan is ranked 133rd out of 109 (much lower risk)
15
Q
Why is Myanmar’s elderly population more vulnerable to hazards?
A
- Low level of internet and mobile phone access for elderly people (they can’t contact emergency services or family for aid)
- Education is poor (they don’t know how to stay safe in the event of a hazardous event)
16
Q
What does the PAR Pressure and Release show?
A
It shows the underlying causes of vulnerability. PAR model explains that the idea of vulnerability by showing how the development of a country can affect the root causes of communities vulnerability, such as limited access to structures. It then shows that when these root causes are combine with dynamic pressures, such as rapid urbanisation, unsafe conditions are created- making a population vulnerable. This vulnerability leads to disaster in the event of a hazard.
17
Q
Background information of Japan 2011 earthquake (Tohoku)
A
9.0 magnitude
Stuck under Pacific Ocean
Water column displaced and tsunami was caused
Affected island of Honshu
Earthquake lasted 6 minutes
11th March 2011
Tsunami moved 10km in land and waves reached 10m high
18
Q
What were the SOCIAL impacts of the Japan earthquake 2011?
A
15,800 people died
6023 injured
3282 people reported missing
Majority of victims were over 60
In one elementary school, 74 out of 108 and 10 out of 13 teachers died
100,000 children were separated from their families
90% of deaths caused by drowning 10% died of collapsing buildings or burning
Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant has a meltdown causing radiation to be release
333,000 had to live in temporary housing
300,000 building destroyed and another 1 million damaged.
4000 roads, 78 bridges were severely damaged.
19
Q
What were the ECONOMIC impacts of Japan 2011 earthquake?
A
Estimated cost of earthquake was £181billion
Toyota and Honda could not continue production and supply chains were damaged
Earthquake affected regions responsible for 6-7% of country’s total production
20
Q
What are the POLITICAL factors affecting vulnerability in Japan?
A
- Japan has strict building regulations
- 75% of buildings in Japan are built with earthquakes in mind
- Low levels of government corruption, money goes to protecting people
- Have an early warning system in place
- Residents of Tokyo received a one minute warning on their phones
21
Q
What are the SOCIAL factors affecting vulnerability in Japan?
A
- High speed trains were stopped to protect passengers
- Emergency drills are regularly practised in schools and businesses
- Most homes are equipped with earthquake emergency kits
- Good healthcare system
22
Q
What are the ECONOMIC and ENVIRONMENTAL factors affecting vulnerability in Japan?
A
economic:
-Japan has a high GDP per capita of $40,000USD
environmental:
-Country has a very mountainous spine and only a narrow coastal strip, very high population density in some areas
-Island located on Pacific Ring of Fire (argue this makes them less vulnerable and more prepared)
23
Q
What was the response and recovery for the Japan 2011 earthquake?
A
- Operation USA began immediately working on material aid to focus on shelters and medical supplies
- Child-focused disaster preparedness activities and drills
- Community kitchens established
- $1.1 million USD of GAP clothing donated to Fukushima, Miyagi and Iwate.
24
Q
Background information of Sichuan earthquake 2008
A
7.9 magnitude 12th May 2008 Shallow-focus earthquake C vs C convergent plate boundary Indo-Australian plate collided with Eurasian plate
25
What were the SOCIAL impacts of Sichuan earthquake 2008?
Thousands of schools collapsed
5335 children were killed
In Juyuan Middle school, 900 pupils were killed
69,227 people were killed
Between 5million and 11million people left homeless
1/4 deaths caused by landslides
Power and water supplies were cut leaving people without it for 22 hours
7,900,000 building damaged
26
What were the ECONOMIC impacts of Sichuan earthquake 2008?
- Total cost to economy was between $86-150 billion
| - Loss to industries like mining are thought to have lost $28.9 million
27
What was the response and recovery of the Sichuan 2008 earthquake?
130,000 soldiers sent to affected areas
20 helicopters were assigned to rescue and relief efforts
1million small temporary houses built for homeless
Land was flattened in order to put up tents
Over £100million donated by The Red Cross in fortnight after earthquake
28
What were the factors affecting China’s vulnerability?
Government corruption meant that building regulations weren’t being upheld
Poor infrastructure
Large population density- area hit had a population of 43 million
Area had major fracking industries causing earthquakes to be amplified
Region affected was one of the poorest in China with annual per capita being below $500
Geology of land- has soft rocks which meant landslide easily occurred
29
Background information on Haiti 2010 earthquake
Tuesday 12th January
| 7.0 magnitude
30
What were the SOCIAL impacts of Haiti 2010 earthquake?
- 3 million people affected
- 220,000 dead
- Cholera epidemic
- 300,000 injured
- 1.3million people made homeless
31
What were the ECONOMIC impacts of Haiti 2010 earthquake?
- Main clothing industry was damaged
- Airports and ports were damaged, affecting trade and tourism
- Businesses were destroyed, caused loss of jobs and taxes
32
What was the response and recovery to the Haiti 2010 earthquake?
By 2015 80,000 Haitians were still living in temporary housing
$13 billion of aid donated
Money controlled by NGO projects instead of government, because of concerns of government corruption
New buildings, roads and schools have been built
Health statistic have improved
Government is becoming more resilient in protecting citizens from natural disasters
In 2015 earthquake was approaching and government warned residents and told them to get to high ground, this saved a lot of lives
33
What are the factors affecting vulnerability in Haiti?
- 80% of Haiti’s population live below the poverty line
- 53% of population are illiterate, lack of education, especially about natural disasters
- No warning system in place
- No earthquake drills
- Extremely poor infrastructure, little to no building regulations
- Therefore, building easily collapsed
34
What PHYSICAL factors determine an earthquake's impact?
- Magnitude
- Depth
- Distance from epicentre
- Geology (soft rock amplify shaking)
35
What HUMAN factors determine an earthquake's impact?
- Level of development
- Population
- Level of preparation
- Effectiveness of emergency response
- Impact of secondary hazards
36
What was the main reason for damage in the Loma Prieta 1989 earthquake?
The geology was made up mostly of soft, sandy soil which amplified the seismic waves. It also liquified which caused the Cyprus freeway to collapse.
37
How many deaths did the collapse of the Cyprus freeway cause in the Loma Prieta 1989 earthquake?
42 of the 67 earthquake-related deaths
38
What are the primary effects of an earthquake?
- Ground shaking
| - Crustal fracturing
39
What are the secondary effects of an earthquake?
- Landslides or avalanches
- Tsunami
- Liquefaction
40
When did the Icelandic eruption occur?
March 2010
41
What were the impacts of the Icelandic eruption in 2010?
- Plume of volcanic gas and ash over 33,000 feet high
- Ash carried eastwards over Western Europe
- Jokulhlaups produced due to meltwater from glaciers meaning surging water at 17*C caused flooding
42
What were the economic impacts of Icelandic eruption 2010?
-100,000 commercial flights cancelled
-Worldwide, airlines lost US$1.7billion
-European economy lost US$5billion
Different transport companies were able to benefit, e.g. Eurostar saw an extra 50,000 passengers
-Japanese car manufacturer Nissan halted production of several models for one day because it was not able to import parts from Ireland
-Kenya's economy lost £2.8 billion because of flights to Europe being cancelled
43
What are the causes of a tsunami?
- Underwater earthquake (mostly)
| - Some caused by underwater landslides or by meteor strikes
44
How do earthquakes cause a tsunami?
Earthquake causes the sea floor to uplift, which displaces the water column
45
What is the water column?
The area of seawater from the surface to the seafloor
46
How can tsunamis be predicted?
- Warning sign that the sea gets suck back
- DART system detects waves, which it then sends the information via satellite to tsunami warning systems
- The data is then analysed to predict size and direction of tsunami and areas at risk are warned
47
Background information for Indian Ocean tsunami 2004?
- December 2004
- 9.2 magnitude earthquake
- Subduction of Indian plate under Burma plate
- 30km of water displaced
- 1600km of fault slipped 15m along subduction zone
48
Social impacts of Indian Ocean tsunami 2004
- In some coastal villages, up to 70% of villagers were killed
- 5million people affected overall
- Around 300,000 died, 30,000 injured and 1.7million left homeless
- 1500 villages were destroyed
49
Economic impacts of Indian Ocean tsunami 2004?
- In Sri Lanka, 60% of fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure was destroyed
- Thailand's tourism industry lost $25million a month
- 120,00 workers in Thailand lost their jobs
- Overall economic loss came to $10billion
50
Environmental impacts of Indian Ocean tsunami 2004?
- Fresh water supplies ad agricultural soil contaminated by salt water
- Most vegetation and top soil was removed up to 800m inland
- Ecosystems such as coral reefs and mangroves were destroyed
51
What made people vulnerable in the Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004?
- No warning system
- Population densities in these areas were exceptionally high (Thailand, India)
- Large proportion of population lived in coastal communities were tsunami was strongest
- Coastal communities don't have money to rebuild and struggle to recover before they are hit again
52
What are hazard profiles?
- Compare the physical processes that all hazards share
| - Used to analyse and asses the same hazards which take place in contrasting locations or at different times
53
What are the advantages of hazard profiles?
- Help governments and other organisations develop disaster plans
- Can show a single or multiple hazards, allowing comparisons to be made
54
What are the disadvantages of hazard profiles?
-Comparing different hazards may not be reliable as they have different impacts
55
Why might data collection after a hazard be innacurate or incomplete?
- Immediate focus is on rescue efforts
- No single organisation responsible for collecting data so methods may vary
- Remote areas difficult to access, so many not be taken in account/ are under reported
- Declarations of deaths and casualties may be subject to political bias e.g Indian Ocean 2004, impacts were downplayed by Thai government for fear it would damage toursist industry
56
What are the key characteristics of a tectonic mega disaster?
- Large scale disaster either spatially or in terms of their economic/social impacts
- Pose serious problems for effective management to minimise their impact
- Scale of impact may mean that communities, but usually governments as well, require international support in the immediate and long term
57
What is a multiple hazard zone?
Places where a number of physical hazards combine to create an increased level of risk for the country and its population
58
What has happened to the number of hydrometeorological and tectonic hazards over the years?
- Tectonic hazards have remained the same over recorded history
- Number of hydrometeorological events has increases
- Due to increasing rates of urbanisation and population increase, the number of people being affected by these hazards is also increasing
59
What is the main example of a multiple hazard zone?
Philippines
60
Why is the Philippines a multiple hazard zone?
- Located on Pacific Ring of Fire
- Tropical monsoon climate, so is subject to heavy annual rain
- Steep topography, high levels of deforestation and heavy rainfall make landslides common
- Northern and Eastern coats face the Pacific Ocean (world's most tsunami prone ocean)
- Has 47 volcanoes, 22 of which are active
- Over 30% of population live within 30km of a volcano
- Lies within South East Asia's major typhoon belts
- In most years, its affected by 15 typhoons and actually struck by 6 to 9
- Fast growing population has led to rapid urbanisation and a high population density
- 25% of population live in poverty
- 60% of population live in costal communities, where sea surges, tsunamis and flooding is common
61
Where is the Philippines situated?
In South East Asia, where the Pacific plate meets the Eurasian plate. This means it is located on the Pacific Ring of Fire. It lies parallel to the coast of Vietnam and is situated near other islands, such as Malaysia
62
What is prediction?
Stating when a hazard is going to take place
63
What is a forecast?
Giving a timeframe of which an earthquake could happens e.g years to decades
64
How to predict an earthquake?
- Cannot be predicted despite decades of scientific research
- Based on statistical likelihood of an event happening at a particular location
- Forecasts based on data and evidence gathered through global seismic monitoring networks as well as historical records
- Warning signs are used to identify a characteristic pattern of seismic activity, usually foreshocks or other physical, chemical or biological change
- For predictions to be useful they must be highly accurate
- At present it is impossible and many scientist do not think there is a realistic prospect of this happening in the future
- Animal behaviour
65
What makes prediction useful?
Allows evacuation of affected areas`
66
Why isn't disaster management planning always reliable?
- Event is bigger than anticipated
- Unexpected secondary impacts
- Regulations are ignored
- Other hazards interfere (MHZ)
67
What does Park's Model show?
Shows the quality of life pre disaster and then how it can deteriorate during and after a disaster, before either returning to normality or improving
68
What can Park's Model be used for?
Used to directly compare how areas at different levels of development might recover from a hazard event
69
What is hazard mitigation?
Strategies meant to avoid, delay or prevent hazard events
70
What is hazard adaption?
Strategies designed to reduce the impacts of hazard events
71
What are the mitigation strategies?
- Land use zoning
- Diverting lava flows
- GIS mapping
- Hazard resistant design and engineering defences
72
What are the adaption strategies?
- High tech monitoring
- Crisis mapping
- Modelling hazard impact
- Public education
73
How to predict a volcanic eruption?
- Can be predicted
- Sophisticated monitoring equipment on volcanoes can measure changes as magma chambers fill and eruption nears
- Tiltmeters and strain meters record volcanoes 'bulging' as magma rises and seismometers record minor earthquakes indicating magma movement
- Gas spectrometers analyse SO2 emissions which can point to increased eruption likelihood.
- The minimal death toll from volcanic eruptions (despite 60-80 eruptions per year) can be mainly attributed to vastly improved prediction of these events
74
How to predict a tsunami?
- Can be partly predicted
- An earthquake-induced tsunami cannot be predicted
- However, seismometers can tell an earthquake has occurred and locate it, then ocean monitoring equipment, such as the DART system can detect a tsunami in the open sea
- Sensor on ocean floor detects water pressure and signals sent to surface buoys which transmits it to a satellite which is then transmitted to warning centres
- This information can be relayed to coastal areas, which can be evacuated
75
What are the four stages of the hazard mitigation cycle?
1. Response - Immediate help in the form of rescue to save lives and aid to keep people alive, emergency shelter, food and water.
2. Recovery - Rebuilding infrastructure and services, rehabilitating injured (physically and mentally) people and their lives
3. Mitigation - Acting to reduce the scale of the next disaster: land-use zoning, hazard-resistant buildings and infrastructure
4. Preparedness - Community education and resilience building including how to act before, during and after a disaster, prediction, warning and evacuation technology and systems
5. (Repeat)
76
What does the time frame of the recovery stage depend upon?
- The magnitude of the disaster - bigger means longer
- Development level - lower means longer, as poorer people are more severely affected
- Governance, because well governed places will divert resources more effectively to recovery efforts.
- External help, i.e. aid and financing to help the recovery effort
77
Land-use zoning:
This is preventing people from building:
- on low-lying coasts (at risk from tsunami and flooding)
- close to volcanoes
- on areas of high ground-shaking and liquefaction risk
Advantages:
-Low cost
-Removes people from high-risk areas
Disadvantages:
-Prevents economic development on some high-value land, e.g. coastal tourism
-Requires strict, enforced planning rules
78
Diverting lava flows:
Channels, barriers and water cooling used to divert and/or slow lava.
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Advantages:
-Diverts lava out of harm's way
-Relatively low cost
Disadvantages:
-Only works for low VEI basaltic lava
-The majority of 'killer' volcanoes are not of this type
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79
GIS mapping:
- Can be used to identify where evacuation routes should be placed or to help with rescue or recovery options
- Used in the 2015 Nepal earthquake to combine information about:
- Locations of airports and airstrips, areas affected by earthquake, locations and rough population sizes of major towns
- Helps aid agencies identify areas most affected and identify nearest drop off locations for emergency supplies and relief workers
- It is reliant upon gov to accept aid for this strategy to be effective
- Reduces reaction time
80
Hazard resistant design:
Buildings that are strong enough to resist (most) earthquakes, and prevent damage. They may include:
- cross-bracing reinforces structures, since one diagonal brace may be in tension whilst the other is slack
- counter-weights
- deep foundations, these may be of stone, and made from rubble
- hollow concrete bricks designed to cause minimal damage
- reinforced cement concrete roof
- reinforced steel corner pillars to provide strength and flexibility
- Not all aseismic design has to be expensive and high tech
- In Pakistan, some houses have been built from bales of straw held together by strong plastic netting
- During an earthquake, the walls crack but don't collapse
81
High tech monitoring:
This is used to modify the behaviour of volcanoes and predict eruptions.
Advantages:
-In most cases, predicting an eruption is possible
-Warnings and evacuation save lives
Disadvantages:
-Costly, so not all developing world volcanoes are monitored
-May suffer from 'cry wolf syndrome' if predictions are not accurate
-This is where predictions (and evacuation) are wrong, so people are less lively to believe the next one.
-Does not prevent property damage
82
Crisis mapping:
- In the days following the 2010 Haitian earthquake, the lack of good infrastructure and communication systems hampered rescue efforts
- Local people began providing information such as where people were trapped and where first aid was needed
- This information was plotted onto maps by volunteers around the world so anyone with internet could see them
- Rescue and aid workers began to use these maps to decide when and where to direction resources
- Some agencies now use crisis mapping before a disaster to identify potentially vulnerably areas
- In Nepal, in the aftermath of the 2015 earthquake, volunteers riding bicycles with GPS trackers went to remote villages to collect data about population size and quality of buildings to provide the basis for projects to improve infrastructure and disaster preparedness
83
Modelling hazard impact:
- Computer models allow scientists to predict the impacts of hazard events on communities
- Information fed into computer system which then model the effects of a disaster
- Also allow scientists to compare the effects of different scenarios
- Computer models can then be used by decision makers to help them develop plans and strategies to reduce the impact of hazard events and target resources more effectively.
84
Public education:
Examples of this are: preparation days, education in schools and earthquake kits. These are boxes of essential household supplies (water, food, battery powered radio, blankets) kept in a safe place at home to be used in the days following an earthquake.
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Advantages:
-Low cost, often implemented by NGOs
-Can save lives through small actions
Disadvantages:
-Does not prevent property damage
-Harder to implement in isolated rural areas
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85
Short-term emergency aid:
Search and rescue followed by emergency food, water and shelter.
Advantages:
-Reduces death toll by saving lives and keeping people alive until longer-term help arrives
Disadvantages
High cost:
-Difficult to distribute in isolated areas
-Emergency services are limited and poorly equipped in developing countries
86
Long-term emergency aid:
This may take the form of reconstruction plans to rebuild an area and possibly improve resilience
Advantages:
-Reconstruction can 'build in' resilience through land-use planning and better construction methods
Disadvantages:
-Very high costs
-Needs are quickly forgotten by the media after the initial disaster
87
Insurance:
- This is compensation given to people to replace their economic losses
- Can replace or provide money for cars, possessions, businesses, etc.
Advantages:
-Allows people to recover economically by paying for reconstruction
Disadvantages:
-Does not save lives
-Few people in the developing world have insurance.
88
What do NGOs do in managing loss?
- Raise money through donations to fund projects
- Send volunteers to affected countries
- Support and advise government
- Run community projects
- Provide clothing, blankets, etc.
89
What can communities do in managing loss?
- Organise evacuation drills and provide first aid courses
- Community kitchens
- Recovery volunteers
- Use of local knowledge
- Emotional support
90
What can aid-donors do in managing loss?
- Provide food and water
- Sending over both rescue and medical teams
- Build temporary homes
- Send over lots of money
91
Environmental Impacts of Icelandic Eruption 2010:
- The mass-grounding of European flights prevented the emission of some 2.8m tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (according to the Environmental Transport Association)
- The eruption on 14 April set off a major flood in Iceland, when erupted lava partly melted a glacier prompting authorities to order 700 people to evacuate.
- Ash from the Eyjafjallajökull volcano deposited dissolved iron into the North Atlantic, triggering a plankton bloom
92
Social Impacts of Icelandic Eruption 2010:
- 500 local cattle farmers and their families had to be evacuated from the area around the volcano
- The people living in the rural areas 'downwind' of the volcano had to wear goggles and facemasks as the ash was so thick
- The ash contaminated local water supplies. Farmers near the volcano were warned not to let their livestock drink from contaminated streams and water sources, as high concentrations of fluoride from the ash mixed with river water can have deadly effects
