health, disease and development of medicines Flashcards
(81 cards)
1
Q
health
A
a state of complete physical, mental and social wellbeing
2
Q
communicable disease
A
diseases which can spread between individuals
e.g. flu
3
Q
non communicable
A
diseases which cannot be spread between individuals
e.g. cancer, heart disease
4
Q
what are pathogens
A
organisms such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists
5
Q
cholera pathogen
A
bacterium
6
Q
cholera symptoms
A
diarrhoea
7
Q
how does cholera spread
A
contaminated water sources
8
Q
how to reduce/prevent cholera spread
A
make sure that people have clean water supply’s
9
Q
tuberculosis pathogen
A
bacterium
10
Q
tuberculosis symptoms/effects
A
coughing and lung damage
11
Q
how does tuberculosis spread
A
through the air of infected peoples coughs
12
Q
how to reduce/prevent tuberculosis
A
infected people should avoid crowded public spaces
keep good hygiene
have well ventilated homes
13
Q
malaria pathogen
A
protists
14
Q
malaria symptoms/effects
A
damage to red blood cells and in severe cases to the liver
15
Q
how does malaria spread
A
mosquitos act as a vector, pass on the protist to humans without getting the disease themselves
16
Q
how to reduce/prevent malaria
A
use mosquito nets and insect repellent to prevent mosquitoes from biting them
17
Q
stomach ulcers pathogens
A
bacterium
18
Q
stomach ulcers symptoms / effects
A
stomach pain, nausea, vomiting
19
Q
how do stomach ulcers spread
A
oral transmission
20
Q
how to reduce/prevent stomach ulcers
A
having clean water supplies and hygienic living conditions
21
Q
ebola pathogen
A
virus
22
Q
ebola symptoms
A
haemorrhagic fever (fever with bleeding)
23
Q
how does ebola spread
A
bodily fluids
24
Q
how to reduce ebola
A
isolating effected individuals and serialisation
25
chalara ash dieback pathogen
fungus
26
chalara ash dieback symptoms
leaf loss, bark lesions (wounds)
27
how does chalara ash dieback spread
carried through air and wind, spreads when diseased trees move
28
how to reduce chalara ash dieback
removing young, infected ash trees and replanting different species
29
virus facts
1. they aren’t cells, no more than a protein coat around a strand of genetic material
2. can only reproduce inside living cells
3. they have to infect living cells to reproduce
4. specific types of viruses will only infect specific cells
30
what is the lytic pathway
1)The virus attaches itself to a specific host cell host cell and injects its genetic material into the cell.
2) The virus uses proteins and enzymes in the host cell to replicate its genetic material and produce the components of new viruses.
3) The viral components assemble.
4) The host cell splits open, releasing the new viruses, which infect more cells.
31
what is the lysogenic pathway
1) The injected genetic material is incorporated into the genome (DNA) of the host cell.
2) The viral genetic material gets replicated along with the host DNA every time the host cell divides - but the virus is dormant (inactive) and no new viruses are made.
3) Eventually a trieder (e.g. the presence of a chemical) causes the viral genetic material to leave the genome and enter the lutic pathway.
32
what is an STI
sexually transmitted infection transmitted though sexual contact
33
what is chlamydia
a bacterium bit behaves a similar way to a virus as it only reproduces inside host cells
34
symptoms of chlamydia
results in infertility for men and women
35
how is chlamydia reduced or spread
wearing a condom while having sex
screening individuals so they can be treated for the infection
avoid sexual contact
36
what does HIV stand for
human immunodeficiency virus
37
what is HIV
kills white blood cells, important in the immune response
38
what does HIV eventually lead to
AIDS - acquired immune deficiency syndrome
39
what happens to a person who has HIV
infects a persons immune system and deteriorates and eventually fails, they become very vulnerable to opportunistic infections by other pathogens
40
how is HIV spread
infected bodily fluids
41
ways to prevent HIV
using a condom during sex
avoid using needles
medication
42
how can aids be prevented
it cannot
43
how can plants defend against pathogens (physical)
1. leaves and stems have a waxy cuticle as a barrier to stop pathogens entering them and pests from damaging them.
Also can stop water transmitted diseases as water only collects on the leaf
2. surrounded by cell walls made from cellulose
44
how can plants defend against pathogens (chemical)
1. produce antiseptics, kill bacterial and fungal pathogens
2. chemicals which can deter pests from feeding on their leaves
45
how do plants detect antigens
Pathogens have unique molecules on their surface called antigens.
Antigens from a particular pathogen will be present in a plant infected with that pathogen
and can be detected in a sample of plant tissue
46
how do plants detect DNA
If a plant is infected with a pathogen, the pathogen's DNA will be present in the plant's tissues.
Scientists have techniques that allow them to detect even small amounts of pathogen DNA in a sample of plant tissue, allowing them to identify the particular pathogen that is present.
47
what are some physical barriers
1. skin - if it’s damaged it clots quickly so pathogens cannot enter
2. hair and mucus - trap particles which could contain pathogens
3. cilia - hair like structure which wafts the mucus up the back of your throat where it can be swallowed
48
some chemical barriers
1. stomach produces hydrochloric acid which kills pathogens swallowed
2. eyes produce a chemical called lysozyme which kills bacteria on the surface of the eye
49
how does your immune system attack pathogens
1. every pathogen has unique molecules on its surface called antigens
2. when your lymphocytes come across the antigen on the pathogen, they start to produce a protein called antibodies.
3. antibodies invade the pathogen and become specific to that pathogen - won’t lock onto any others
4. antibodies then rapidly flow round the body to find similar pathogens
5. the memory lymphocyte remembers the pathogen so next time the body may not even feel ill as it can identify and kill it before it effects anyone
50
what do memory lymphocytes do
give immunity to later infection
51
what is immunisation
usually involves injecting dead or inactive pathogens into the body.
These are antigenic (they carry antigens), so even though they're harmless your body makes antibodies to help destroy them.
52
pros of immunisation
Big outbreaks of diseases, called epidemics, can be prevented if a large percentage of the population are immunised. - known as ‘herd immunity’
Some diseases, e.g. smallpox, have been virtually wiped out by immunisation programmes.
53
cons of immunisation
doesn’t always work, sometimes it doesn’t give you immunity
can sometimes have a bad reaction to a vaccine, rare but still can happen
54
what are monoclonal antibodies
identical antibodies
55
how are monoclonal antibodies produced
are produced from lots of clones of a single B-lymphocyte.
This means all the antibodies are identical and will only target one specitic protein antigen
56
how are monoclonal antibodies useful
they only bind to their target, ,means you can use them to target a specific cell or chemical in the body
57
what is a hybridomas
can be cloned to get lots of identical cells
58
how do you make monoclonal antibodies that target cancer cells
Cancer cells have proteins on their cell membranes that aren't found on normal body cells.
In the lab, you can make monoclonal antibodies that will bind to these tumour markers.
59
how can monoclonal antibodies be used to diagnose cancer
1) First, the antibodies are labelled with a radioactive element.
2) Then, the labelled antibodies are given to a patient through a drip. They go into the blood and are carried around the body.
3) When the antibodies come into contact with the cancer cells they bind to the tumour markers.
4) A picture of the patient's body is taken using a special camera that detects radioactivity, Anywhere there are cancer cells will show up as a bright spot.
5) Doctors can see exactly where the cancer is, what size it is, and find out if it is spreading.
60
how can monoclonal antibodies be used to find blood clots
1) When blood slots, proteins in the blood join together to form a solid mesh.
2) Monoelonal antibodies have been developed that bind to these proteins.
3) You can attach a radioactive element to these antibodies.
4) Then, if you inject them into the body and take a picture using a camera that picks up the radiation, that picture will have a really bright spot where there is a blood clot.
5) This is useful because you can easily find a potentially harmful blood clot
61
what are antibiotics used to treat
bacterial infections
62
what was the first drug discovered
penicillin
63
what is preclinical testing (first 2 stages)
1) In preclinical testing, drugs are first tested on human cells and tissues in the lab. However, you can't use human cells and tissues to test drugs that affect whole or multiple body system
2) The next step is to test the drug on live animals. This is to test that the drug works (produces
the effect you're looking for), to find out how toxic (harmful) it is and to find the best dosage.
64
what is clinical testing
1) If the drug passes the tests on animals then it's tested on human volunteers in a clinical trial
2) First, the drug is tested on healthy volunteers to make sure that it doesn't have any harmful side effects when the body is working normally.
3) If the results of the tests on healthy volunteers are good, the drugs can be tested on people
suffering from the illness. The optimum dose is found - this is the dose of drug that is the most effective and has the fewest side eftects.
4) Patients are randomly put into two groups. One is given the new drug, the other is given a
placebo. This is to allow for the placebo effect.
5) Clinical trials are blind - the patient in the study doesn't know whether they're getting the
drug or the placebo.
In fact, they're often double-blind - neither the patient nor the doctor knows until all the results have been gathered. This is so the doctors monitoring the patients and analysing the results aren't subconsciously influenced by their knowledge.
65
how can you grow bacteria in the lab
make a agar plate
1. hot agar jelly is poured into shallow round plastic dish called a Petri dish
2. when the jelly is cooled and set, wire loops can be used to transfer microorganisms to the agar jelly or get a pipette to spread the bacteria
66
how to investigate substances on bacteria growth
Place paper discs soaked in different types of antibiotice on an agar plate that has an even covering of bacteria. Leave some space between the discs.
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria will continue to grow on the agar around the paper discs, but non-resistant strains will die.
A clear area will be left where the bacteria have died - this is called an inhibition zone.
67
examples of aseptic techniques
1. sterilised before used
2. lightly tap on lid over dish, stops air from getting in
3. stored upside down, stops condensation
68
calculate the area of an inhibition zone
area = pi x radius squared
69
what lifestyle factors may increase risk of non communicable disease
1. smoking
2. diet
3. exercise
4. alcohol
70
how is smoking a risk factor
1. nicotine - cigarette smoke increases heart rate and increases blood pressure
2. high blood pressure damages artery walls - fatty deposits build up which restricts blood flow and increases heart attack risk
3. blood clots - restricts blood flow
71
how is diet a risk factor
too many or too few nutrients can lead to malnutrition, e.g. scurvy and vitamin C deficiency
72
how is exercise a risk factor
not getting enough and having a diet high in fat and sugar are risk factors for obesity
73
how is alcohol a risk factor
major risk factor for the development of liver diseases
74
how do non communicable diseases have wide range effects
where there is high risk factors, there may be high health risks and occurrence of non communicable diseases
it’s also costly for an area, some people may not be able to work so therefore effecting a countries economies
75
what is the BMI equ
weight / height (m) (squared)
76
what is the waist to hip ratio
waist circumference / hip circumference
77
how does cardiovascular disease effect your heart and blood vessels
arteries are blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart, cholesterol is a fatty deposit which can build up in the arteries and restrict blood flow, causing health problems
78
what drug can be used to reduce the risk of heart attack or stroke
statins
79
what is a statin
reduces the amount of cholesterol in the blood stream, slows down the rate of which fatty deposits form
80
lifestyle changes to reduce CVD
1. change your lifestyle - reduce risk
2. healthy balanced diet - lower fatty foods intake
81
surgical procedure to repair damage
stents
tubes inserted in arteries - keep them open so blood can flow through - lowering risk of heart attack - opens them up
coronary bipass
if a blood vessel is blocked, healthy vessel can be taken from somewhere else and placed in the blocked area
