Health Professionals and Institutions (wk 9)

Question 1

List the requirements of attaining a health care credential

Answer 1

Meet admission criteria
Successful completion of coursework requirements
Education (pursing a degree or certificate)
Training (rotations, residency, etc.)
Demonstrate competency through examinations (PANCE/PANRE)
Official Recognition of Educational Program (ARC-PA)
Registry, certification, and/or licensure.

Question 2

You get your PA degree, then you get your ____________, then finally your _________________.

Answer 2

certification; license

Question 3

What are the 2 main types of health professionals?

Answer 3

1) Clinical
2) Allied

Question 4

Give examples of clinical health professionals

Answer 4

MDs/DOs, nurses, dentists, pharmacists, PAs, NPs, optometrists, clinical psychologists, and others

Question 5

List and give examples of the 2 different types of allied health jobs

Answer 5

1) Graduate-level trained: physical therapists, occupational therapists, and medical social workers
2) Associate’s degree trained: dental assistants, sonographers, and laboratory technicians

Question 6

1) Who accredits PA programs?
2) Who is the national PA certifying body?
3) Who gives our licenses?

Answer 6

1) ARC-PA
2) NCCPA
3) Individual state

Question 7

Define accreditation+ how it’s done and give an example

Answer 7

1) A process that evaluates institutions; sets standards for educational and training institutions and enforces these standards
-How? Through a regularly scheduled institutional self-study and an outside review
2) The accrediting body for PA education is the ARC-PA (Accreditation Review Commission for Education of the Physician Assistant)

Question 8

What are the goals of the accreditation process?

Answer 8

1) Continuously evaluate and improve their processes and outcomes
2) Helps prospective students identify ideal programs
protects programs from internal and external pressures to make changes
3) Involves faculty and staff in comprehensive program evaluation and planning
4) Stimulates self-improvement by setting national standards

Question 9

Licensure is required to practice as a specific healthcare provider; what are 3 requirements?

Answer 9

1) Local residency requirements
2) A criminal background check
3) Continuing education requirements

Question 10

Describe credentialing

Answer 10

-Individual evaluation for individual qualifications to practice in a profession
-Often takes the form of a Certification such as through a formal exam
-Defines specialties and subspecialties within a profession
i.e. “board-certified”, PA-C

Question 11

Welch-Rose Report (1915):
1) What did it help develop + establish?
2) What did it establish?
3) What occurred in the 1970s-80s?

Answer 11

1) Schools of public health at the graduate level for nurses, engineers, physicians, etc.
2) Johns Hopkins University was established as first graduate school of public health (1916)
3) Growth of schools of public health and more programs in public health

Question 12

Describe the Educational Options within Public Health

Answer 12

1) Masters of Public Health (MPH): Generalist core
2) Specialties within MPH:
epidemiology, biostatistics, environmental health, health administration, health policy, etc.
3) Growth of doctoral programs (PhD, DrPH)

Question 13

Describe the result of the Community College and Public Health Report (2014)

Answer 13

1) Encouraged public health education at the community college level
2) Health Navigation education: Recommended by the Report
-Certificate program vs associate degree to help individuals navigate the complex public health, healthcare, and health insurance systems
-Ex: community health worker, patient navigator, health insurance navigator

Question 14

1) How many public health professionals in the US?
2) Who does Formal Public Health accreditation of public health schools and programs?
3) What are the general groups of career opportunities?

Answer 14

1) ~500,000
2) Council on Education for Public Health (CEPH)
3) Governmental public health
Not-for-profit and for-profit institutions
Educational and healthcare institutions

Question 15

National Board of Public Health Examiners:
1) What do they administer?
2) Who is eligible for this exam?

Answer 15

1) Certification in Public Health (CPH) exam
+ maintenance of certification programs
2) Enrolled in or completed a Council on Education in Public Health accredited Master’s program OR completed an undergraduate degree and have relevant public health experience
Certification is voluntary but increasingly expected

Question 16

1) National Board of Public Health Examiners offers what?
2) Who is eligible?
3) Is this voluntary?

Answer 16

1) Certification in Public Health (CPH) exam + maintenance of certification programs
2) Enrolled in or completed a Council on Education in Public Health accredited Master’s program OR completed an undergraduate degree and have relevant public health experience
3) Certification is voluntary but increasingly expected

Question 17

1) Differentiate Allopathic (MD) vs Osteopathic (DO)
2) Describe the different recent changes

Answer 17

1) 35+ osteopathic schools
150+ allopathic schools
Graduates apply and compete for the same residency and fellowship programs
2) Hospice and palliative care recently added
Subspecialty certification for hospitalists (peds and adults)
Increasing diversity of trainees
USMLE Step 1 now P/F
Customize curricula

Question 18

Describe the results of the 1910 Flexnor Report

Answer 18

1) Formalized science-based medical education, hospital-based clinical rotations and a 4-year education model
2) Flexnor era of US Medicine extended until the 1980s (longer for some institutions) led to…
a) Growth and dominance of specialties and specialists
b) Hospital-based residency programs
c) Fellowships leading to specialty and subspecialty training

Question 19

1) Changes in medical education began in the mid ______________
2) Why?

Answer 19

1) mid-1980s
2) Much healthcare moved out of hospitals
-Increased medical school enrollment of women and minorities
-A broader view of what should be included in medical education
-A better understanding of how learning takes place

Question 20

What caused changes in the medical education to begin in the 80s?

Answer 20

1) Encouragement of a wider range of undergrad majors
2) Courses in behavioral and social sciences encouraged
3) Changes to the MCAT
4) Increased use of PBL; new curriculum added in EBM, interviewing skills, and ethics
5) OSCEs (OSLERs)
6) Primary care experiences/rotations outside of the hospital
7) Move towards continued specialization with fellowships
8) Limits of residency training (80hrs/week or <24 consecutive hours)

Question 21

Describe the Doctorate of Nursing Practice (DNP) role

Answer 21

1) Tend to specialize (FNP/NA/PNP/AGPCNP/Midwife/Women’s Health/Acute Care)
2) 433 DNP programs in the US

Question 22

Describe Registered Nurses (RN) briefly

Answer 22

1) Hospital-based services
2) Requires a state license (may require a BSN)

Question 23

List the New and Expanding Roles for Nurses

Answer 23

Infection control specialists
Health navigation
Nurse Case Management
Patient safety
Health Information Systems
Disaster and emergency management

Question 24

New/ expanding nurse roles; describe:
1) Health navigation
2) Nurse Case Management

Answer 24

1) Help patients navigate the increasingly complex healthcare system, insurance, etc.
2) Work in hospitals to ensure timely services, communications between healthcare professionals, and to expedite transitions to home or follow-up health facilities

Question 25

True or false: Until the 1960s-1970s, the MPH degree was aimed at physicians and nurses

Answer 25

True

Question 26

Compensation depends on what?

Answer 26

1) Site where care is delivered (Primary vs Secondary vs Tertiary) 2) The patient’s insurance -Example: Medicare covers services that PAs provide at 85% of the physician fee when billed under the PAs NPI number. 3) Type of institution in which the professional works or is employed -Clinical setting plays a significant role

Question 27

List and describe areas of Shortages of Healthcare Professionals in the US

Answer 27

1) Primary Care Physicians (FM, IM, Ob-Gyn) 2) Dentists: Dental schools closed in the 1980s when there was an oversupply; now, a shortage. 3) Nursing (~3 million RNs in US today): 1 in every 3 RN program applicants is turned down -Now, expected deficit

Question 28

List, describe, and give examples of the 2 main kinds of healthcare institutions

Answer 28

1) Outpatient Facilities -Clinical services -Diagnostic testing or treatment (Quest labs, outpatient surgery centers, etc) 2) Inpatient Facilities (>24hrs) -Hospitals -Long term care facilities -Skilled nursing and rehab facilities -Nursing homes -Institutional hospices

Question 29

Describe common features of all hospitals

Answer 29

1) Licensed by the state and usually accredited by a national organization (ie The Joint Commission) 2) An organized physician staff (“house staff”) and 24/7/365 nursing services 3) Governing board separate from the medical and nursing staff responsible for operating the hospital consistent with state and federal laws

Question 30

List and describe the 3 main types of non-profit hospitals

Answer 30

1) Private nonprofit ½ of the 6000 hospitals Many affiliated with religious denominations 2) State, local, or federal government-owned 20% of the 6000 hospitals (community hospitals) Federal: VA hospitals and military hospital system 3) Run by institutions/universities Teaching vs nonteaching hospitals Academic health center

Question 31

1) Give an example of a Non-profit hospital system 2) How is this example funded?

Answer 31

1) Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) Safety net for veterans who may not have other sources of medical care 2) As of 2019, VA enrollees can obtain medical care outside the VA system if their wait for the VA exceeds 14 days (previously 30) AND the VA will cover the costs

Question 32

Describe For-profit Hospitals

Answer 32

1) Balance community service with shareholder returns More financial pressure (especially if a publicly traded company) 2) 20% of all hospitals; highest number in Florida, Nevada and Texas -Small number of large corporations specializing in providing healthcare services -Example: HCA (based in Nashville) 3) Often more expensive than nonprofit Usually located in areas with more under or uninsured patients

Question 33

Nursing homes: 1) There are ____________ nursing homes in the US with _____________ residents. 2) What do nursing homes offer? 3) What 2 types of regulations do they operate by? 4) Are assisted living and dementia care healthcare facilities?

Answer 33

1) 16,000; 1.5million residents 2) Long-term or custodial care of patients unable to perform activities of daily living (ADLs) 3) State nursing home regulations Federal minimal standards 4) Not recognized as healthcare facilities

Question 34

Skilled nursing facilities (SNF): 1) What are they? Give examples 2) Who is hospice care for? Who pays for it? What does it do?

Answer 34

1) Generally short-term, aimed at accomplishing specific objectives -Recovery after a stroke, recovery after a hip fracture and surgery 2) Life expectancy of <6mos; paid for by Medicare -Provides comfort, palliation, and emotional support

Question 35

1) Give 2 examples of clinical facilities 2) What did the Health Centers Consolidation Act of 1996 do? 3) Give an example of diagnostic testing 4) Give an example of a therapeutic facility

Answer 35

1) Provider clinics + Community Health Centers 2) Combined community health centers with healthcare services for migrants, the homeless, and residents of public housing to consolidate (aka 330 grantees) 3) Outpatient radiology 4) PT, OT

Question 36

Quality can be assessed by the structure, process, and outcome measures; define each

Answer 36

1) Structure: the physical and organizational infrastructure in which care is delivered. 2) Process: the procedures and formal processes that go into delivering care Example: credentialing process for healthcare professionals 3) Outcome measures: refer to a focus on the result of the care provided

Question 37

National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA): 1) What did it initially do? 2) According to them, what 2 aspects of of healthcare delivery are key to the efficiency and quality of care provided? 3) What else does it do?

Answer 37

1) Developed a general framework to assist with defining and measuring quality 2) Coordination and integration 3) NCQA medical care report cards

Question 38

Efforts to integrate the healthcare system include what 2 things? Describe each

Answer 38

1) Integrated healthcare delivery systems: A coordinated and collaborative network that links various healthcare providers 2) The use of integrated EMRs: Connection of EMR platforms to enable smooth flow of communication and coordination of clinical information and data

Question 39

1) Coordination between institutions and settings: What is the goal? Give an example 2) Give an example of healthcare delivery and public health functions

Answer 39

1) Formally link institutions, services, and information (requires financial coordination) -insurance coverage of services in one setting but not in another reflects ineffectiveness and inefficiency in the system 2) Communicable disease control (controlling antibiotic resistance) and environmental protections (lead exposure)

Question 40

Give an example of care coordination in emergencies and list 3 things it accomplishes

Answer 40

Emergency response system 1) Helps to quickly respond to emergencies. 2) Provides onsite assistance and information. 3) Identifies the healthcare institution that is best prepared to handle the emergency

Question 41

1) Describe the Patient Safety Movement 2) List the benefits

Answer 41

1) To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System Report (2000) ~100,000 deaths per year in hospitals = the result of errors Individual errors Systems errors Focus shifted from errors (individual) to safety (system) “A culture of safety” Built on trust, accountability, and transparency 2) Limited legal liability Investigating recovery patterns for improvement

Question 42

What are 5 steps needed to build a culture of safety?

Answer 42

1. Leadership Transformational leadership 2. Transparency Within and outside the organization 3. Errors If a medical error, apologize, pay for all care, seek resolution, and provide continued care 4. Near-misses/Good catches Creation of a reliable means to capture and analyze good catches/near-misses 5. Continual assessment

Question 43

Describe medical malpractice

Answer 43

Varies state to state Part of the civil law so cases decided by jury based on preponderance of the evidence Builds on negligence law intended to protect an individual from harm Considered medical malpractice only if the patient can establish all four of the following… A duty was owed A duty was breached The breach caused injury Damages occurred

Question 44

Keystone ICU project: describe and give the intervention + outcome

Answer 44

Instituted in 2004 in 103 Michigan ICUs Goal: Prevent some of the 80,000 catheter-associated bloodstream infections and 28,000 deaths associated with these infections in the US yearly -Intervention:A short checklist of best practices related to catheter use -Outcome: Incidence dropped to <20% of previous infections