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From Flashcardlet > higher biology metabolism and survival > Flashcards

higher biology metabolism and survival Flashcards

0
Q

A metabolic pathway is

A

A series of chemical reactions occurring in a cell

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1
Q

Metabolism

A

All the chemical reactions taking place in a cell

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2
Q

Making and breaking chemical bonds involves

A

Energy

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3
Q

Anabolic reactions

A

Make more complex structures so require energy

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4
Q

Catabolic reactions

A

Break bonds so energy is released

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5
Q

Anabolic and catabolic reactions

A

Anabolic build up, catabolic break down

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6
Q

Metabolic pathways can have

A

Irreversible and reversible steps and alternative routes

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7
Q

What affects the rate at which a metabolic pathway proceeds

A

The presence or absence of particular enzymes

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8
Q

What affects a metabolic pathway as a whole

A

Th regulation of the rate of the reaction of key enzymes within the pathway

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9
Q

Regulation is achieved by

A

Intercellular and extra cellular signal molecules

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10
Q

Genes for some enzymes are _________ expressed

A

Continuously

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11
Q

The membrane system is essential for

A

Transport both within cells and between cells

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12
Q

What are embedded and dispersed in the phospholipid bilayer of a membrane?

A

Proteins that vary in both structure and function

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13
Q

Channel (pore) proteins

A

Allow specific molecules and ions to pass through the membrane

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14
Q

Carrier pump proteins

A

Bibs to specific molecules or ions temporarily to carry them through the membrane and this involves a change to its conformation which may need use of ATP (active transport)

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15
Q

Sodium potassium pump where carriers play a duel role

A

Each carrier pumps out 3 sodium from the cell and pumps 2 potassium into the cell create a difference in potential allowing nerve impulses to function properly

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16
Q

Enzymes in the membrane

A

Proteins in the membrane that catalyse a reaction

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17
Q

Membranes can form compartments to

A

To localise metabolic activity of the cell

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18
Q

Mitochondrian membranes

A

Outer membrane separates it from the rest of the cell contents and a folded inner membrane provides a large surface area for reactions to take place along

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19
Q

Another double structure membrane

A

The chloroplast

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20
Q

Activation energy

A

The energy needed to allow a reaction to occur

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21
Q

Effect of enzyme use on activation energy

A

Activation energy is lowered

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22
Q

The active site allows the enzyme to (3 things)

A

Orientate reactions, lower the activation energy of the transition state, release products with low affinity for the active site

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23
Q

The induced fit model

A

The active site is complementary to a substrate molecule and when the substrate molecule enters the active site, the active site changes shape making a reaction more likely to occur as the substrate molecule is under more tension

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24
Q

The rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction is affected by:

A
  • the concentration of the enzyme
  • the concentration of the substrate
  • the concentration of the end product
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25
Q

Some enzymes act in groups or as

A

Multi-enzyme complexes

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26
Q

Inhibitors

A

Reduce the rate of enzyme activity

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27
Q

A competitive inhibitor

A

Resembles the shape and size of the substrate, binds to the active site of the enzyme, blocking the entry of the real substrate, slowing the rate of reaction

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28
Q

The inhibitor is diluted when

A

The substrate concentration continues to increase

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29
Q

If the inhibitor is diluted

A

The enzyme will bind the real substrate more often

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30
Q

V max

A

Maximum activity of an enzyme

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31
Q

A non-competitive inhibitor

A

Binds to another part of the enzyme away from the active site causing the shape of the enzyme and its active site to change so the substrate can no longer bind

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32
Q

When a non-competitive inhibitor is used

A

An enzyme will never reach its V max because some of the enzyme molecules are inactive

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33
Q

Feedback inhibition (final product inhibition)

A

Final product may act as an inhibitor to reduce the activity of the enzyme at the start of pathway

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34
Q

Benefit of feedback inhibition

A

Prevents the cell from wasting energy synthesising a product that they already have in excess

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35
Q

Where is ATP found

A

In living cells

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36
Q

How does the cell form ATP and use ATP

A

Cell uses energy from respiration to form ATP and ATP can be broken down to release energy when the cell needs it

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37
Q

The formation of ATP

A

Cell uses energy from respiration to add an inorganic phosphate to ADP allowing the cell to store the energy released from respiration

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38
Q

What carry out the the breakdown of ATP to ADP

A

Enzymes

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39
Q

Uses of ATP

A

Used to transfer energy to synthetic pathways (amino acids to protein) and to other cellular processes which require energy (active transport/mitosis)

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40
Q

Phosphorylation

A

An enzyme controlled process which adds a phosphate group to a molecule e.g. ADP + Pi -> ATP
It is also when a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to a molecule of a reactant to make it more reactive

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41
Q

Glycolysis summary

A

Occurs in the cytoplasm, glucose uses 2 ATP for phosphorylation to get to intermediate 1, 2 ATP are then used to go to intermediate 2 and then intermediate 2 creates 4 ATP as it goes to a pyruvate

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42
Q

Intermediate 1 can either

A

Enter other metabolic pathways or carry on in respiration

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43
Q

Energy investment and energy pay-off

A

Energy investment occurs as 2 ATP are used up for phosphorylation from glucose to intermediate 2, energy pay-off occurs as from intermediate 2 to pyruvate, 4 ATP are made, this means the net total of ATP produced from glycolysis is 2

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44
Q

Dehydrogenase enzymes

A

Release hydrogen ions and high energy electrons from glucose

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45
Q

H ions and electrons become bound to

A

Coenzymes which act as hydrogen acceptors and carriers

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46
Q

Coenzyme and example

A

A non-protein part which assists the functioning of an enzyme e.g. NAD

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47
Q

NAD in glycolysis

A

Hydrogen is attached to it causing it to become reduced and making it NADH, this happens in glycolysis from intermediate 2 to glucose with 2 NAD

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48
Q

Where does the citric acid cycle take place

A

The matrix in the mitochondria

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49
Q

How does the citric acid cycle begin

A

If oxygen is present the pyruvate diffuse into the matrix

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50
Q

Citric acid cycle summary

A

Pyruvate is broken down into an acetyl group which becomes attached to coenzyme A forming acetyl coenzyme A, hydrogen ions and electrons become attached to the coenzyme NAD to form NADH. Acetyl coenzyme A combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate

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51
Q

Hydrogen ions and electrons in citric acid cycle

A

They are released and attach to either NAD or fad which forms FADH2

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52
Q

CO2 in citric acid cycle

A

Diffuses out of the cell as a waste product and is expired by breathing out

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53
Q

Alternative respiratory substrates

A

Starch (plants) and glycogen (animals)

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54
Q

Alternative intermediates of glycolysis

A

Other sugar molecules, proteins, fats

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55
Q

The electron transport chain is a

A

Collection of proteins attached to the mitochondrial inner membrane

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56
Q

Electron transport chain summary

A

NADH and FADH2 release the high energy electrons to the electron transport chain where they pass along the protein chain, releasing energy, this energy is used to pump H ions across the membrane, the enzyme ATP synthase then uses the flow of hydrogen ions to make ATP from ADP+Pi

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57
Q

The final electron acceptor

A

Is oxygen as at the end of the chain, electrons and hydrogen combine with oxygen to form water

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58
Q

Anaerobic respiration

A

During this process sugar is only partially broken down and very little energy is released, this reaction is reversible since there is no loss of carbons (CO2)

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59
Q

Fermentation

A

Glucose -> pyruvate -> ethanol and CO2

This reaction is irreversible as there is a loss of carbons as CO2 is released

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60
Q

Metabolic rate of an organism

A

The quantity of energy (ATP) consumed per unit time

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61
Q

Metabolic rate can be measured by: (3 things)

A

Oxygen consumption per unit time, carbon dioxide produced per unit time and energy production (increase in temperature) per unit time

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62
Q

Direct calorimetry

A

Measures heat production directly, subject is placed in an insulated chamber and the temperature rise of a known water mass is calculated

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63
Q

Most efficient method of measuring energy expenditure

A

Energy (calories) = mass of water (g) times temperature change (degrees Celsius)

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64
Q

High tech respirometers to measure metabolic rate

A

They can track the temperature, oxygen concentration and CO2 concentration in real time using probes linked to computers

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65
Q

Measuring fitness

A

Maximum oxygen uptake of a person is called VO2 max and the higher the value of this the greater the aerobic fitness of the individual

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66
Q

Oxygen delivery and classes of animals

A

Organisms with high metabolic rate require an efficient delivery of oxygen, the physiology of the heart chambers and circulation is different in different classes of animals in order to support oxygen demands

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67
Q

Fish hearts and the single circulatory system

A

Contain two main chambers, an atrium and ventricle, and blood makes a single circuit through fish, it is pumped from the ventricle to the gills where it is oxygenated, the heart must provide enough blood pr sure to pump it round the whole body

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68
Q

Disadvantage of single circulatory system

A

The Gill capillaries offer too much resistance to blood flow so blood pressure is slowed down

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69
Q

Amphibian hearts and incomplete double circulatory system

A

Their hearts have two atria and one ventricle, the right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body while the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, the ventricle is undivided

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70
Q

Ventricle in amphibians

A

Deoxygenated and oxygenated blood remain mostly separate by the arrangement of vessels leaving the heart

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71
Q

Ventricle in reptiles

A

Single ventricle is partly separated by a septum which limits mixing of blood

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72
Q

Amphibian lungs

A

Small thin-walled sacs with no alveoli, relative surface area for gas exchange is small, they normally exchange gases through their skin and mouth only using their lungs during vigorous activity

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73
Q

Mammal and reptile lungs

A

System of branching tubes which end in alveoli

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74
Q

Alveoli structural features

A

Many alveoli greatly increase surface area increasing the quantity of gas exchanged, the alveoli are thin-walled allowing a fast diffusion rate, the inner walls are moist allowing oxygen to dissolve and diffuse easily

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75
Q

Birds and lungs

A

High metabolic rate meaning they have a high oxygen demand for flight, they have developed two large air sacs on either sides of lungs, these move air unidirectional oh through the breathing system acting as bellows

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76
Q

Oxygen concentration at sea level is

A

20%

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77
Q

How do humans respond to altitude

A

They produce more red blood cells (haemoglobin) to deliver sufficient oxygen to cells

78
Q

Deep diving mammals response to low oxygen

A

They significantly decrease their heart rate during a dive to conserve oxygen and also have large quantities of myoglobin in their muscles which has a high affinity for oxygen, they also have double the volume blood per kg of body mass to store more oxygen

79
Q

How do mammals deep dive

A

They collapse their lungs to make themselves more buoyant

80
Q

Conformers

A

Have an internal environment which varies directly with their external environment

81
Q

Osmoconformers

A

Organisms which allow their internal water concentration to be the same as their surroundings

82
Q

Tolerance in conformers

A

Conformers which can survive small changes in their habitat although this is normally over a very small rate of change, if the change becomes too great this can place physiological stress on the organism

83
Q

Resisting conformers (limpets)

A

Show adaptations which isolate them from environmental change, limpets can withstand drying out by ensuring they are tightly sealed to rocks

84
Q

As conformers are only tolerant or resistant to environmental change,

A

They usually exist in restricted habitats and often experience fierce intraspecific competition

85
Q

Regulators

A

Able to control their internal environment independently of their external environment

86
Q

Osmoregulators (sticklebacks)

A

Organisms which can control their water balance, sticklebacks remove excess water through adaptations to their excretory system

87
Q

Thermoregulators

A

Organisms that are able to keep their body temp constant despite environmental changes so they can occupy a wider range of habitats

88
Q

Homeostasis

A

Regulators maintain their internal temp using homeostatic controls, using a receptor to detect changes, a signalling mechanism to send messages to effector, and the effectors then bring about changes to return system to normal

89
Q

Regulators effectively carry life support systems to prevent

A

Environmental conditions being too limiting

90
Q

Do regulators or conformers consume more food?

A

Regulators do as they require large and frequent amounts of appropriate food to meet energy demands

91
Q

If temperature goes below 37 degrees Celsius

A

Metabolism is slowed down and brain is affected

92
Q

If temperature goes above 37 degrees Celsius

A

Enzymes are denatured blocking metabolic pathways

93
Q

Thermoregulators have a high metabolic rate which

A

Generates heat energy

94
Q

Regulatory methods to control body temp

A

Homeostatic or behavioural

95
Q

Receptor in temp control

A

This is the hypothalamus, is detects temp change through nerve impulses from thermocepters in the skin and thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus which detect changes in blood temp

96
Q

Signalling mechanism in temp control

A

Hypothalamus sends nerve impulses to effectors to return body temp to a set point

97
Q

Effector in temp control

A

The skin acts as the effector to maintain body temp

98
Q

Correction of overcooling

A

Arterioles at surface of skin constrict to reduce heat loss by radiation, this is known as vasoconstriction

99
Q

Correction of overheating

A

Arterioles at the surface of the skin dilate to allow heat to be lost by radiation, this is known as vasodilation

100
Q

Hair erector muscles in temp change

A

When they contract the hairs stand up against your skin allowing a layer of air to cool down the skin

101
Q

Dormancy

A

A life cycle stage associated with resisting or tolerating periods of environmental adversity. This involves a period of time when an organism’s metabolism is reduced, allowing it to survive adverse conditions

102
Q

Predictive dormancy

A

It occurs in advance of the adverse conditions and is usually genetically programmed. It is typical in predictable seasonal environments where the temperature or photoperiod can be used as environmental cues

103
Q

Consequential dormancy

A

Occurs in response to prevailing conditions and is typical of organisms from unpredictable environments

104
Q

Hibernation

A

A period of inactivity in mammals associated with physiological changes (lower temp, breathing and heart rate) resulting in a lowering of the metabolic rate to conserve energy during periods of environmental extremes

105
Q

Aestivation

A

A period of inactivity associated with hot, dry periods during which the organism remains in a state of torpor with a reduced metabolic rate. This occurs in lungfish and amphibians such as desert frogs

106
Q

Daily torpor

A

When organisms with high metabolic rates reduce their activity

107
Q

Why do organisms perform daily torpor

A

Small mammals and birds have a large surface area so lose heat fast meaning that they require a high metabolic rate to maintain body temp, they therefore decrease the rate of energy consumption during times when they are inactive

108
Q

Torpor

A

A state of decreased physiological activity in an animal, usually by a reduced body temp and metabolic rate

109
Q

Migration

A

The regular movement of a species from one area to another a relatively large distance away

110
Q

Benefits and costs of migration

A

Migration expends energy but allows the species to avoid conditions which prevent them from maintaining metabolic activity e.g. Limited food supply ( energy input too low) or low temp (energy output too high)

111
Q

4 things that must be found out when studying migration

A

When the animal migrates, the migratory route, the trigger stimulus, the navigational device

112
Q

Techniques to track animals during migration

A

Individual marking, tagging, tracking using transmitters (bees, dragonflies, sparrows)

113
Q

Innate migratory behaviour

A

Has a genetic component and is instinctive

114
Q

Learned

A

When behaviour is modified due to practice or experience

115
Q

Cross fostering experiments (support innate behaviour)

A

Migratory black headed gulls were fostered by non-migratory herring gulls. The young black headed gulls still migrated even though the herring gulls did not

116
Q

Displacement experiments

A

Adult and young inexperienced starlings were relocated
Adults compensated for displacement and arrived in the correct location however the young birds arrived in the wrong country

117
Q

Most extremophiles belong to the domain

A

Archaea

118
Q

Extremophiles

A

Live in extreme conditions which would be lethal to most other organisms such as hot springs and hydrothermal vents

119
Q

Thermophilic bacteria

A

Thrive at temperatures of 50-80 degrees Celsius

120
Q

Hydrothermal vent temperature and species

A

Chemicals are 400 degrees Celsius, shrug and tubeworms thrive in these vents

121
Q

Why can’t most organism survive at hot temps?

A

Most enzymes denature at high temps

122
Q

How do Thermophilic survive in hot conditions

A

The chains of the amino acids chains of their enzymes retain the 3D folded structure at high heat

123
Q

Thermophilic bacteria (thermus aquaticus)

A

Taq polymerase comes from this bacteria which can be found at Yellowstone national park where it lives in boiling water, Taq polymerase can therefore function at high temperatures making it useful for PCR

124
Q

How do extremophiles produce ATP

A

In hot springs or hydrothermal vents they generate ATP by removing high-energy electrons from inorganic molecules

125
Q

Snottites

A

Colonies of single-called bacteria which hang from cave ceilings and walls and generate ATP from hydrogen sulphide and produce sulphuric acid

126
Q

Methanogens

A

Found in low oxygen niches e.g. Human digestive systems or hot springs/hydrothermal vents, they generate ATP from hydrogen and produce methane

127
Q

Micro-organisms and metabolism

A

They can use a wide range of substrates for metabolism and produce a wide range of products from metabolic pathways. This adaptability means that they are found in a wide range of ecological niches

128
Q

Use of microorganisms

A

They are used for a wide range of research and industrial uses due to ease of cultivation and growth speed

129
Q

Arachaea

A

Prokaryotes which can use a wide variety of energy sources and survive in a wide range of environments e.g. Soil, hot springs and the human gut

130
Q

Sulfolobus

A

An archaea (extremophile) that is found in hot springs and thrives in acid and sulphur-rich environments

131
Q

Halococcus salifodinae

A

Arachaea (extremophile) found in water with high salinity

132
Q

Bacteria length and shape

A

Prokaryotic microbes that measure a few micrometers in length and can be rods, spirals or spheres

133
Q

Bacteria habitats

A

Most habitats including soil, water, acidic hot springs and radioactive waste

134
Q

Actinomycetes

A

Bacteria present in soil in large numbers, capable of degrading complex chemical substances and is a source of streptomycin (an antibiotic)

135
Q

Chlorobium tepidum

A

Thermophilic bacteria that grow in dense mats over hot springs (e.g. In Yellowstone national park and other sulphide rich water, mud and sediments

136
Q

Unicellular eukaryote examples

A

Phytoplankton, Protozoa, amoeba

137
Q

Phytoplankton

A

Contain photosynthetic pigments, are buoyant and float in upper part of ocean

138
Q

Protozoa

A

Single cell ex animals which feed on bacteria, aquatic and live in soil, water films, water filled pores of soil aggregate

139
Q

Amoeba

A

Can move easily by cytoplasmic streaming - amoeba forms pseudopods which allow it flow over the cytoplasm which has turned into a solid state

140
Q

Factors affecting microbial growth (5)

A

Growth media, sterilisation, availability of oxygen, temperature, pH

141
Q

Growth media

A

Media requires an energy source e.g. Carbohydrate and raw materials to produce e.g. Amino acids are required, the media is sterilised before use

142
Q

Complexed media

A

Exact chemical composition and components not known e.g. Nutrient agar

143
Q

Defined media

A

Components known and relatively pure e.g. M9

144
Q

Sterilisation techniques

A

Heat sterilisation, pasteurisation (milk heated), radiation (electromagnetic), filter sterilisation, disinfectants and antiseptics (disinfectants cannot be applied to human skin but antiseptics can)

145
Q

Availability of oxygen

A

Obligate anaerobes die when exposed to oxygen but many need oxygen in order to respire (obligate aerobes)

146
Q

Industrial fermenters requirements

A

Air filter, pH and temperature probes, water in, water out, piping, paddles and motor for stirring, harvest pipe, buffers

147
Q

Temperature

A

All microbes have a range of temperature due to enzymes but this range always has a an optimum temperature

148
Q

Cryophile, mesophile, thermophile

A

Cold optimum temp, average optimum temp, high optimum temp

149
Q

pH

A

Microbes have an optimum pH with fungi having a pH of 4-6 and bacteria having a neutral pH, buffers can be used to keep the pH constant

150
Q

Fermenter sensors

A

Constantly monitor oxygen concentration, pH and temperature and send info to computers which adjusts to optimums accordingly

151
Q

Lag phase of microbial growth

A

Little increase in cell number as cells are adjusting to conditions by inducing enzymes which can metabolise the available substrates

152
Q

Log phase of microbial growth (exponential)

A

Microbes divide at constant intervals, double continuously over certain periods of time, as primary metabolites are being synthesised for growth and reproduction

153
Q

Stationary phase of microbial growth

A

Reproduction of cells is offset by death as population reaches a plateau as nutrients become exhausted and toxic waste builds up

154
Q

Death phase of microbial growth

A

Conditions stay the same so cells die repeatedly as nutrients are completely exhausted and toxic waste has accumulated

155
Q

Total cell number and viable cell number

A

Total of dead and alive cells, total of alive cells

156
Q

How to determine -total and -viable cell number

A
  • colorimeter, microscope or haemocytometer

- plating the culture on agar plates

157
Q

As the number of cells in a culture increases, so does

A

The turbidity of the cell culture

157
Q

As the number of cells in a culture increases, so does

A

The turbidity of the cell culture

158
Q

Standard curve purpose

A

Shows the relationship between colorimeter readings (measures turbidity) and known yeast concentrations

158
Q

Standard curve purpose

A

Shows the relationship between colorimeter readings (measures turbidity) and known yeast concentrations

159
Q

Primary metabolites

A

Related to the growth of microbial cells and produced in the growth phase e.g. Amino acids, nucleotides, ethanol, organic acids

159
Q

Primary metabolites

A

Related to the growth of microbial cells and produced in the growth phase e.g. Amino acids, nucleotides, ethanol, organic acids

160
Q

Secondary metabolites

A

Produced in stationary phase of growth, frequently produced as a result of an inducer, have no direct relationship with cell growth e.g. Antibiotics, citric acid and therapeutic proteins such as insulin

160
Q

Secondary metabolites

A

Produced in stationary phase of growth, frequently produced as a result of an inducer, have no direct relationship with cell growth e.g. Antibiotics, citric acid and therapeutic proteins such as insulin

161
Q

Secondary metabolites importance in pharmaceutical industry

A

Finding new secondary metabolites allows antibiotics which bacteria have become resistant to, to be replaced

161
Q

Secondary metabolites importance in pharmaceutical industry

A

Finding new secondary metabolites allows antibiotics which bacteria have become resistant to, to be replaced

162
Q

Yeast’s secondary metabolites confer and ecological advantage because

A

They may produce one which is an antibiotic to reduce competition for resources

162
Q

Yeast’s secondary metabolites confer and ecological advantage because

A

They may produce one which is an antibiotic to reduce competition for resources

163
Q

How to get a desired metabolite from a pathway (3 methods)

A

Adding a precursor (large quantities of early metabolite), adding an inducer (induces certain key enzymes that make the metabolite), adding an inhibitor (prevents enzyme from acting upon desired metabolite) these all ensure a continuous supply of the metabolite

163
Q

How to get a desired metabolite from a pathway (3 methods)

A

Adding a precursor (large quantities of early metabolite), adding an inducer (induces certain key enzymes that make the metabolite), adding an inhibitor (prevents enzyme from acting upon desired metabolite) these all ensure a continuous supply of the metabolite

164
Q

Mutagenesis for strain improvement

A

Frequency of mutation is increased by exposure to mutagenic agents which can sometimes cause useful mutations to occur, e.g. Yeast strains that produce more ethanol have been exposed to uv irradiation

164
Q

Mutagenesis for strain improvement

A

Frequency of mutation is increased by exposure to mutagenic agents which can sometimes cause useful mutations to occur, e.g. Yeast strains that produce more ethanol have been exposed to uv irradiation

165
Q

Why must mutant microbes be carefully watched

A

Because they can show beneficial properties of commercial value so can be selected and cultured or they could be genetically unstable and revert to less useful wild strain

165
Q

Why must mutant microbes be carefully watched

A

Because they can show beneficial properties of commercial value so can be selected and cultured or they could be genetically unstable and revert to less useful wild strain

166
Q

Selective breeding for strain improvement

A

Bacteria can transfer genetically material by exchanging plasmids through pilli, eukaryotic microbes such as yeast can produce new genotypes by sexual reproduction between existing strains

166
Q

Selective breeding for strain improvement

A

Bacteria can transfer genetically material by exchanging plasmids through pilli, eukaryotic microbes such as yeast can produce new genotypes by sexual reproduction between existing strains

167
Q

Methods of horizontal gene transfer between bacteria (3)

A

Transformation involves naked DNA being taken up from the environment, transduction is when a bacteriophage (virus) introduces bacterial DNA to a newly infected cell, conjugation is when a bacterium transfers its plasmid to another bacterium through sex pillus

167
Q

Methods of horizontal gene transfer between bacteria (3)

A

Transformation involves naked DNA being taken up from the environment, transduction is when a bacteriophage (virus) introduces bacterial DNA to a newly infected cell, conjugation is when a bacterium transfers its plasmid to another bacterium through sex pillus

179
Q

Recombinant DNA technology

A

A series of procedures that are used to join (recombine) DNA segments

180
Q

Recombinant DNA can replicate either

A

On its own or after it has been integrated into a chromosome meaning that new traits can be introduced

181
Q

Examples of genes which are introduced into microorganisms are ones which: (3)

A

Remove inhibitory control to increase desired reaction rate and yield, amplify specific metabolic steps to increase desired reaction rate and yield, prevent the recombinant organism from reproducing in the wild to prevent its escape into the environment for safety

182
Q

DNA can be introduced into microorganisms by the use of vectors e.g. (2)

A

Plasmids can be removed from a bacterial cell and a gene from another inserted, artificial chromosomes can be synthesised to transfer large sections of DNA into cells

183
Q

In recombinant DNA, plasmids and artificial chromosomes contain:(4)

A

Marker genes like antibiotic resistance to allow success of vectors to be tracked, restriction sites which allow the plasmid to be opened with special enzymes, genes for self-replication, regulatory sequences to control translation and transcription of inserted gene

184
Q

Restriction endonuclease

A

Extracted from bacteria and used to cut sections of DNA in genetic engineering, each one cuts DNA at a specific sequence (restriction site) and produces sticky ends which can match with other sticky ends produced by the same enzyme

185
Q

DNA ligase and restriction sites

A

Used to seal DNA fragments together which have been separated by the same endonuclease

186
Q

Advantages of e.coli

A

They have several different types of plasmid that can be used to introduce foreign DNA, foreign DNA can account for up to 60% of its total protein production, fast growing, easy to transform, easy to manipulate

187
Q

Disadvantages of e.coli

A

Prokaryotic cells so do not carry out RNA splicing and post translational modifications which result in incorrect folding of protein, this means the protein may not be able to function in eukaryotic cells, it occurs naturally in human intestines and can cause disease

188
Q

Advantages of s.cerivisiae

A

Rarely a human pathogen, unicellular eukaryotic organism, genes organised expressed and controlled in similar ways to human genes, carries out post translational modification e.g. Addition of sugar residues which is a common feature of human proteins

189
Q

Disadvantages of s.cerivisiae

A

Difficult to transform, yields less protein than bacteria, plasmids easily lost from yeast

190
Q

Bioethics

A

A discipline dealing with the ethical implications of biological research and applications

191
Q

Bioethical issues

A

Animals rights and welfare, human testing, potential effects of genetically modified species on other species and the environment

192
Q

Risk assessments

A

Analyse the relative risks pose by possible toxic, pathogenic and ecological effects of biotechnology

From Flashcardlet (64 decks)

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