Hist 3100 Final

Question 1

Sulla

Answer 1

Lucius Cornelius Sulla was a Roman general and dictator who rose to power after marching on Rome twice, a shocking violation of Roman norms. He fought and won a brutal civil war against Marius and the populares, instituted proscriptions to eliminate his enemies, and implemented constitutional reforms to strengthen the Senate and limit the powers of the tribunes, aiming to restore the Republic — ironically through authoritarian means.

Question 2

Mithridates VI

Answer 2

Mithridates VI of Pontus was a long-standing enemy of Rome in the East, known for his resistance to Roman domination in Asia Minor. He sparked three Mithridatic Wars and orchestrated the Asiatic Vespers, a massacre of tens of thousands of Romans in Asia. Despite multiple defeats, he remained a formidable foe until his final defeat and suicide.

Question 3

Pompey

Answer 3

Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, or Pompey the Great, was one of the most powerful generals of the late Republic. He earned early fame defeating Sertorius, pirates in the Mediterranean, and both Mithridates and Tigranes. He formed the First Triumvirate with Caesar and Crassus but later aligned with the Senate in civil war against Caesar, leading to his defeat at Pharsalus and death in Egypt.

Question 4

Crassus

Answer 4

Marcus Licinius Crassus was Rome’s wealthiest man and part of the First Triumvirate. He famously crushed the slave revolt led by Spartacus and sought military glory to match Pompey and Caesar. His disastrous campaign against the Parthians ended in the Battle of Carrhae, where he was killed and his army destroyed.

Question 5

Sertorius

Answer 5

Quintus Sertorius was a Roman general and Marian loyalist who led a resistance movement in Spain after Sulla’s rise. He formed an alternative Roman government, allied with local tribes, and proved a capable guerrilla leader. His assassination by his own officers ended the rebellion.

Question 6

Lepidus (the elder)

Answer 6

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (elder) was a consul and opponent of Sulla’s constitutional reforms. After Sulla’s death, he attempted to revive the populares cause but was defeated in a short civil war, showing how Sulla’s legacy had silenced opposition for a time.

Question 7

Spartacus

Answer 7

Spartacus was a Thracian gladiator who led the largest slave revolt in Roman history (73–71 BC), known as the Third Servile War. His rebellion challenged Roman military authority for two years before being crushed by Crassus. Pompey took credit for mopping up survivors, causing friction between the two.

Question 8

Lucullus

Answer 8

Lucius Licinius Lucullus was a competent general and aristocrat who initially led the campaign against Mithridates VI and Tigranes II. Though successful militarily, his troops mutinied, leading to his recall and replacement by Pompey. He was later mocked for his extravagant lifestyle.

Question 9

Tigranes II

Answer 9

Tigranes the Great was the king of Armenia and son-in-law of Mithridates VI. He built a short-lived empire in the Near East before being defeated by Lucullus and Pompey. He surrendered to Rome but was allowed to remain as a client king under Roman oversight.

Question 10

Pompey’s Eastern Settlement

Answer 10

After defeating Mithridates and Tigranes, Pompey reorganized the East without Senate approval. He annexed new provinces (e.g., Syria), established client kingdoms, and increased Rome’s power and tax revenue. Though effective, his actions stirred political tensions back in Rome.

Question 11

Julius Caesar

Answer 11

Julius Caesar was a brilliant general and ambitious politician who rose to prominence through military conquest and political maneuvering. His conquest of Gaul made him immensely powerful and popular, sparking fear in the Senate. When ordered to disband his army, he crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, starting a civil war. After defeating Pompey, he became dictator for life, initiating sweeping reforms before being assassinated in 44 BC by senators led by Brutus and Cassius.

Question 12

Catiline

Answer 12

Lucius Sergius Catilina, or Catiline, was a disgruntled aristocrat who led a conspiracy in 63 BC to overthrow the Roman government. His plan involved arming debt-ridden supporters and assassinating key officials. Cicero exposed the conspiracy in the Senate, leading to the execution of his co-conspirators and Catiline’s death in battle.

Question 13

Cicero

Answer 13

Marcus Tullius Cicero was a renowned orator, statesman, and defender of the Republic. He rose to consul in 63 BC and played a central role in exposing the Catiline Conspiracy. Though a skilled politician and writer, he lacked a personal army, which limited his power. He was eventually proscribed and executed under the Second Triumvirate.

Question 14

Cato the Younger

Answer 14

Marcus Porcius Cato was a Stoic philosopher and a staunch defender of the Republic. He opposed Caesar and the First Triumvirate and supported Pompey during the civil war. After Caesar’s victory, Cato committed suicide at Utica rather than live under what he saw as tyranny.

Question 15

Clodius

Answer 15

Publius Clodius Pulcher was a populist tribune and political agitator. He gained support by reforming the grain dole and legalizing collegia. Clodius clashed bitterly with Cicero and Milo, and was eventually killed in a violent street brawl, highlighting the breakdown of order in late Republican politics.

Question 16

Bona Dea Scandal

Answer 16

In 62 BC, Clodius snuck into the all-female Bona Dea festival disguised as a woman, allegedly to meet Caesar’s wife. The scandal damaged Caesar’s reputation and led to a high-profile trial. Though Clodius was acquitted, it fueled his public notoriety and intensified rivalries in Roman politics.

Question 17

First Triumvirate

Answer 17

The First Triumvirate was an informal political alliance between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus in 60 BC. Each brought distinct strengths: Caesar’s ambition, Pompey’s military prestige, and Crassus’ wealth. The alliance bypassed Senate opposition to push their agendas, but it ultimately collapsed due to rivalry and Crassus’ death.

Question 18

Collegia

Answer 18

Collegia were associations or clubs in Rome, often organized by trade or religion. Under Clodius, they became powerful political tools, used for organizing street gangs and violent demonstrations. Their legalization under his tribunate significantly destabilized Roman politics.

Question 19

Caesar’s Gallic Campaign

Answer 19

From 58–50 BC, Caesar waged war across Gaul, greatly expanding Roman territory and earning immense personal glory. His Commentaries detail his battles and political justifications. The campaigns provided Caesar with wealth and a loyal army, giving him the power to challenge the Senate.

Question 20

Luca Conference

Answer 20

Held in 56 BC, the Luca Conference was a secret meeting between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus to renew their alliance. They agreed to extend Caesar’s command in Gaul and secure new provinces for Pompey and Crassus, temporarily restoring unity in the First Triumvirate.

Question 21

Vercingetorix

Answer 21

Vercingetorix was a Gallic chieftain who united several tribes in a revolt against Roman occupation in 52 BC. He adopted scorched earth tactics and initially won at Gergovia. However, Caesar ultimately defeated him at Alesia after a brilliant siege. Vercingetorix surrendered and was paraded in Caesar’s triumph before being executed in Rome.

Question 22

Battle of Alesia

Answer 22

The Battle of Alesia (52 BC) was the decisive engagement of Caesar’s Gallic Wars. Caesar besieged Vercingetorix inside a fortified city while fending off a massive Gallic relief force with a double wall of fortifications. The victory cemented Caesar’s conquest of Gaul and demonstrated his strategic genius.

Question 23

Battle of Carrhae

Answer 23

In 53 BC, Crassus led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians, seeking military glory. At Carrhae, he was ambushed by the Parthian general Surena. The Roman legions were decimated by horse archers, and Crassus was killed. His death destabilized the First Triumvirate and increased tensions between Caesar and Pompey.

Question 24

Curio

Answer 24

Gaius Scribonius Curio was a politician who initially opposed Caesar but later became a loyal supporter. Caesar sent him to Africa to fight Pompeian forces, but he was defeated and killed by King Juba I of Numidia. His death weakened Caesar’s early position in Africa during the civil war.

Question 25

Marc Antony

Answer 25

Marc Antony was a key supporter and general of Caesar. After Caesar’s assassination, Antony took control of his legacy and formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus. Though initially successful, his alliance with Cleopatra and increasing rivalry with Octavian led to his defeat at Actium and suicide in 30 BC.

Question 26

Lepidus (the younger)

Answer 26

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (younger) was the least powerful member of the Second Triumvirate. He was given control of Africa but was politically sidelined by Octavian and Antony. After a failed attempt to assert power during the Sicilian revolt, he was stripped of his offices and forced into retirement.

Question 27

The Civil War

Answer 27

The Roman Civil War (49–45 BC) between Caesar and Pompey erupted after Caesar crossed the Rubicon. It involved key battles like Pharsalus, Thapsus, and Munda. Caesar's victory marked the end of the Republic’s traditional political structure and the rise of autocratic rule.

Question 28

Battle of Pharsalus

Answer 28

In 48 BC, Caesar decisively defeated Pompey’s larger army at Pharsalus in Greece. Caesar’s superior tactics and veteran troops won the day. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was assassinated. The battle was a turning point in the civil war, cementing Caesar’s dominance.

Question 29

Clementia

Answer 29

Caesar’s policy of clementia (mercy) toward defeated Roman enemies was a hallmark of his civil war conduct. He spared many former opponents, including Brutus and Cicero, trying to present himself as a unifier. Ironically, many of those he spared later joined his assassins.

Question 30

Cleopatra

Answer 30

Cleopatra VII was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. She allied with Caesar and later with Marc Antony, bearing Caesarion and Antony’s children. Her political ambitions and relationship with Antony led to conflict with Rome. She died by suicide after Actium.

Question 31

Caesarion

Answer 31

Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion, was Cleopatra’s son, claimed to be fathered by Julius Caesar. After Caesar’s assassination, Cleopatra promoted him as Caesar’s rightful heir. Octavian viewed him as a threat and had him killed after the conquest of Egypt.

Question 32

Battle of Munda

Answer 32

The Battle of Munda (45 BC) was the final battle of Caesar’s civil war. Fought in Spain against Pompey’s sons and remaining Republican forces, it was a hard-won victory that eliminated serious opposition. It also marked Caesar’s consolidation of total power.

Question 33

Sextus Pompey

Answer 33

Sextus Pompey, son of Pompey the Great, became a key naval threat after Caesar’s death. He controlled Sicily and blocked Rome’s grain supply. The Second Triumvirate struggled to defeat him until Agrippa finally crushed him in 36 BC, ending his challenge to Roman authority.

Question 34

Temple of Venus Genetrix

Answer 34

Built by Caesar in the Forum Iulium, the Temple of Venus Genetrix honored Venus as the divine ancestor of the Julian family. It was both a political and religious statement, reinforcing Caesar’s claim of divine descent and his role as a restorer of Rome’s glory.

Question 35

Brutus

Answer 35

Marcus Junius Brutus was a leading senator and former supporter of Pompey who joined Caesar’s assassins despite being pardoned and favored by him. He viewed Caesar’s dictatorship as a threat to liberty. After the assassination, Brutus fled to the East, raised forces with Cassius, and was eventually defeated at Philippi, where he committed suicide.

Question 36

Philippics

Answer 36

The Philippics were a series of fiery speeches delivered by Cicero in 44–43 BC against Marc Antony, likening him to a new Catiline. Cicero hoped to rally the Senate and Octavian to restore the Republic, but the speeches made him a marked man. He was executed in the proscriptions of the Second Triumvirate.

Question 37

Octavian/Augustus

Answer 37

Gaius Octavius, adopted as Caesar’s son and heir, rose to power after Caesar’s assassination. He formed the Second Triumvirate, defeated Brutus and Cassius, and later turned on Antony. After winning at Actium, he became Rome’s first emperor in all but name, taking the title Augustus in 27 BC and inaugurating the Roman Empire and Pax Romana.

Question 38

Second Triumvirate

Answer 38

Formed in 43 BC by Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus, the Second Triumvirate was a legally established three-man dictatorship. Its members used proscriptions to eliminate enemies, including Cicero. Though initially cooperative, internal tensions led to its breakdown and civil war, culminating in Octavian's sole rule.

Question 39

Battle of Philippi

Answer 39

In 42 BC, Octavian and Antony defeated the forces of Brutus and Cassius in two battles at Philippi in Macedonia. The deaths of the last major Republican leaders ended hopes of restoring the Republic and solidified the Triumvirs’ control over Rome.

Question 40

Livia

Answer 40

Livia Drusilla was Augustus’ third wife and a powerful influence in imperial politics. Known for her intelligence and dignity, she was involved in dynastic planning and possibly in the sidelining or elimination of rivals to ensure her son Tiberius succeeded Augustus.

Question 41

Agrippa

Answer 41

Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa was Octavian’s most trusted general and advisor. He won critical battles, including Actium, and oversaw massive building projects in Rome. Though eligible for power, Agrippa remained loyal to Augustus and ensured the succession passed to Augustus’ family line.

Question 42

‘Donations of Alexandria’

Answer 42

In 34 BC, Antony and Cleopatra held a ceremony in Alexandria where they distributed eastern lands to their children, especially Caesarion. This act alienated the Roman public and Senate, who saw it as a betrayal of Roman interests, and it provided Octavian with propaganda to justify war against Antony.

Question 43

Battle of Actium

Answer 43

Fought in 31 BC, the Battle of Actium was a naval battle off the coast of Greece where Octavian’s fleet, led by Agrippa, defeated Antony and Cleopatra. Their flight and eventual suicides gave Octavian undisputed control of Rome and marked the end of the Roman Republic.

Question 44

Praetorian Guard

Answer 44

Established by Augustus, the Praetorian Guard was an elite unit tasked with protecting the emperor. Though initially a bodyguard force, they became deeply involved in imperial politics, often acting as kingmakers or assassins in later periods of the Empire.

Question 45

Forum of Augustus

Answer 45

The Forum of Augustus was a grand public space built to celebrate Augustus’ victories and house the Temple of Mars Ultor ("the Avenger"). It symbolized Augustus’ claim to have avenged Caesar and emphasized his role as restorer of Roman values and traditions.

Question 46

Ara Pacis Augustae

Answer 46

The Ara Pacis, or Altar of Augustan Peace, was commissioned to commemorate Augustus’ return from campaigns in Gaul and Spain. It depicted religious and imperial imagery promoting peace, fertility, and dynastic continuity, embodying the ideals of the Pax Romana.

Question 47

Tiberius

Answer 47

Tiberius was Augustus’ stepson and successor, becoming the second emperor of Rome in AD 14. A competent general and administrator, his reign began well but became increasingly repressive and paranoid, especially after the death of Germanicus. He eventually withdrew from Rome, leaving day-to-day control in the hands of others like Sejanus.

Question 48

Drusus the Elder

Answer 48

Drusus, Tiberius’ younger brother, was a popular general who led successful campaigns in Germania. He died young from a fall from a horse, cutting short a promising career. His death deprived Rome of a capable and well-liked potential successor.

Question 49

Arminius

Answer 49

Arminius was a Germanic chieftain and former Roman auxiliary who betrayed Rome by leading a coalition of tribes to ambush and destroy three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest. His victory humiliated Rome and halted expansion into Germania beyond the Rhine.

Question 50

Battle of the Teutoburger Wald

Answer 50

In AD 9, Arminius ambushed and annihilated three legions under Varus in the Teutoburg Forest. It was one of Rome’s worst defeats and marked the end of major Roman efforts to conquer Germania. Augustus reportedly mourned the loss for years.

Question 51

Marcellus

Answer 51

Marcellus was Augustus’ nephew and early favorite for succession. He married Julia (Augustus’ daughter), but died young in 23 BC. His death was a blow to Augustus’ dynastic hopes and led to the eventual promotion of Agrippa and later Tiberius.

Question 52

Julia (Octavian’s daughter)

Answer 52

Julia the Elder was Augustus’ only biological child. She was married off for political alliances — first to Marcellus, then Agrippa, and finally Tiberius. Despite her early promise, she was exiled for adultery and scandal, illustrating the tension between public morality and private behavior in the imperial family.

Question 53

Gaius

Answer 53

Gaius Caesar, adopted son of Augustus, was groomed as heir alongside his brother Lucius. He held command in the East but died from wounds and illness, dashing Augustus’ hopes for a biological dynasty.

Question 54

Lucius

Answer 54

Lucius Caesar, like his brother Gaius, was adopted by Augustus and positioned to succeed him. He died young from illness in AD 2, leaving Augustus to rely on Tiberius as heir.

Question 55

Germanicus

Answer 55

Germanicus was the popular and charismatic nephew of Tiberius, adopted as his heir. He led successful campaigns in Germania and the East, but died mysteriously in Syria. His death caused public mourning and suspicion that Tiberius or Piso were involved.

Question 56

Sejanus

Answer 56

Lucius Aelius Sejanus was the commander of the Praetorian Guard under Tiberius. He accumulated vast power while Tiberius was in Capri, eliminating rivals and possibly plotting to seize the throne. Tiberius eventually turned on him, having him arrested and executed in AD 31.

Question 57

Piso

Answer 57

Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso was the governor of Syria and rival of Germanicus. Accused of poisoning Germanicus and undermining him, he was put on trial in Rome after Germanicus’ death. He committed suicide before a verdict, but suspicion of foul play lingered.

Question 58

Agrippina the Elder

Answer 58

Agrippina was the wife of Germanicus and granddaughter of Augustus. After his death, she became a vocal critic of Tiberius and a rallying point for opposition. She and her sons were eventually exiled or killed under Tiberius’ increasingly paranoid regime.

Question 59

Disaster at Fidenae

Answer 59

In AD 27, a poorly constructed amphitheater at Fidenae collapsed during a gladiator show, killing around 20,000 spectators. The tragedy exposed corruption and negligence in public works and remains one of the deadliest stadium disasters in history.

Question 60

Gaius (Caligula)

Answer 60

Caligula, born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, succeeded Tiberius in AD 37. Initially popular, his rule soon turned erratic and cruel. He declared himself a living god, bankrupted the treasury, and engaged in bizarre behavior. He was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard in AD 41.

Question 61

Macro

Answer 61

Naevius Sutorius Macro was the Praetorian Prefect who helped Caligula ascend by betraying Sejanus. He wielded major influence early in Caligula’s reign but was later sidelined and forced to commit suicide when he fell out of favor.

Question 62

Incitatus

Answer 62

Incitatus was Caligula’s favorite horse, whom he reportedly planned to make a consul as a sign of his absolute power and disdain for the Senate. Whether fact or exaggeration, the story symbolized the madness and decadence attributed to Caligula’s rule.