Hobbes Flashcards
(111 cards)
1
Q
commonwealth
A
a multitude of people who together consent to a sovereign authority, established by contract to have absolute power over them all, for the purpose of providing peace and common defence
2
Q
covenant / social contract
A
the act of giving up certain natural rights and transferring them to someone else, on the condition that everyone else involved in making the contract also simultaneously gives up their rights. People agreeing to the contract retain only those rights over others that they are content for everyone else to retain over them
3
Q
free man
A
“a free man is he, that in those things which by his strength and will he is able to do, is not hindered to do what he has a will to” (Lev.XXI)
4
Q
law of nature
A
a law of nature is a precept or general rule found out by reason by which a man is forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life, or take away the means of preserving the same (Lev. XIV)
5
Q
laws of nature
A
all laws of nature are contained within the ‘Golden Rule’: “do not that to another which thou thinkest unreasonable to be done by another to thyself” (Lev. XVI)
6
Q
liberty (negative)
A
“liberty signifies the absence of opposition” (Lev.XXI)
7
Q
Leviathan
A
a metaphor for the state, the Leviathan is an artificial person whose body is made up of all the bodies of its citizens and the head is the sovereign
8
Q
liberty (republican)
A
republican liberty is, in a broad sense, a negative conception of liberty
republican liberty is the absence of any structural dependence on arbitrary power or domination
9
Q
natural equality
A
in nature men are all equal to such an extent that “the difference between men is not so considerable as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any benefit to which another may not pretend as well as he” (Lev.XIII)
equal by nature because they are all subject to domination, and all potentially capable of dominating others
10
Q
natural man
A
an inhabitant of the State of Nature
humans are naturally vainglorious and selfish and so seek to dominate others and demand their respect
humans are driven by appetites so need to be restrained and controlled
11
Q
natural right
A
in the State of Nature, individuals have natural rights to liberty and self-preservation
12
Q
sovereign
A
the man, or group of men, endowed with sovereignty by the social contract
the soul of the Leviathan, the maker of laws, the judge of first principles, the foundation of all knowledge, and the defender of civil peace
sovereign is owed complete obedience by its subjects
13
Q
sovereignty
A
supreme and absolute authority over a commonwealth
14
Q
sovereignty by acquisition
A
attaining sovereignty through acquisition by natural force or war
15
Q
sovereignty by institution
A
attaining sovereignty through institution where “men agree amongst themselves to submit to some man or assembly of men on confidence to be protected by him against all others” (Lev.XVI)
16
Q
state of nature
A
the natural condition of mankind
what would exist if there were no government, no civilisation, no laws, and no common power to restrain human nature
it is a “war of every man against every man” (Lev.XIII) where life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” (Lev.XIII)
17
Q
succession (hereditary)
A
practical and efficient mechanism for ensuring the continuity of authority after the current sovereign’s death
18
Q
what were the dates of the Thirty Years War?
A
1618 - 1648
19
Q
what year was King Charles I of England executed?
A
1649
20
Q
what were the dates of the English Civil War?
A
1642 - 1651
21
Q
when was Leviathan published and why is this significant?
A
published in 1651, end of English Civil War with parliament in control
22
Q
when was Cromwell appointed Lord Protector of England?
A
1653
23
Q
why was the English Civil War relevant to Hobbes’ writing of Leviathan?
A
Hobbes wrote Leviathan at the end of his self-imposed 11-year exile in France, while England was embroiled in civil war
civil war:
- parliamentarians vs Royalists
- Hobbes was a royalist (support of Charles I)
Hobbes didn’t like English parliamentary system
- didn’t think it is actually representative or realistic
- still in some kind of state of nature with conflicting views & no concord between individuals
24
Q
Civil War Quote (Lev. Review&Conclusion)
A
“the Civil wars have not yet sufficiently taught men, in what point of time it is, that a subject becomes obliged to the conqueror; nor what is conquest; nor how it comes about, that it obliges men to obey his laws: Therefore for farther satisfaction of men therein, I say, the point of time, wherein a man becomes subject to a conqueror, is that point, wherein having liberty to submit to him, he consenteth…”
25
King Charles I
King of England (1625 - 1649) when he was deposed by Parliament and beheaded
member of the royal Stuart family, son of King James I
26
Charles Stuart (Charles II)
son of King Charles I, later became King Charles II of England at the time of the Restoration in 1660.
central figure of Royalist opposition to Cromwell's government
27
Oliver Cromwell
leading figure in English Civil War and in the non-monarchic government that replaced the regime of Charles I
Lord Protector of England from 1653 until his death in 1658
28
what does the top half of the frontispiece depict / represent?
body of the multitude with one head
giant crowned figure is holding the sword of temporal power (secular) & the bishop's crozier of spirit (church)
- sovereign has final say / control over all aspects of life (secular & church)
figure beneath quote from the Book of Job "non est potestas super terram quae comparetur ei" ("there is no power on earth to be compared to him")
the multitude in the body are all facing away from the viewer
figure is watching over peaceful land
giant head has visible facial features
- a manuscript of Leviathan created for Charles II has notable differences
29
what is the quote on the frontispiece? what is the significance?
"non est potestas super terram quae comparetur ei"
"there is no power on earth to be compared to him" (Book of Job)
quote further links the figure to the sea monster from the book
30
what does the bottom half of the frontispiece depict / represent?
bottom half is a triptych representing the key threats to peace
the two sides reflect the sword & crosier of the main figure – earthly power on the left and the powers of the church on the right
each side element reflects the equivalent power – castle to church, crown to mitre, cannon to excommunication, weapons to logic, and the battlefield to the religious courts
- LHS shows the weapons of the aristocracy (war)
- RHS shows the weapons of the church (scholastic philosophy and excommunication)
31
why is the title significant?
the title includes key Aristotle words "matter", "form", "power"
32
what is the state of nature for Hobbes?
in nature men are all equal to such an extent that “the difference between men is not so considerable as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any benefit to which another may not pretend as well as he” (Lev.XIII)
absence of security yields a SoN characterised by divisive struggle and “war of every man against every man”, where life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short” (Lev.XIII)
33
how does Hobbes view human nature?
Hobbes’ view of humans as animals
- driven by appetites
-need to be restrained & controlled so that they can’t overindulge in their appetites but still allow them to follow their appetites
atomic view of world
- human beings are atomic, isolated, free & self-interestedly rational individuals
- we may care about others, but it is, strictly speaking, irrational to do so unless it somehow serves our own interests
34
what is the first natural right?
the right to do whatever one judges necessary for one's preservation (Lev.XIV)
35
what is a law of nature?
a law of nature is a precept or general rule found out by reason by which a man is forbidden to do, that which is destructive of his life, or taken away the means of preserving the same (Lev. XIV)
36
what are some qualities of laws of nature?
they are contrary to our natural passions (only kept because of fear)
they are eternal & yet easy because they require nothing but endeavour
37
cite this quote: "the difference between men is not so considerable as that one man can thereupon claim to himself any benefit to which another may not pretend as well as he"
Leviathan, Chapter 13
38
city this quote: "war of every man against every man" where life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"
Leviathan, Chapter 13
39
what rule or umbrella statement can all the laws of nature be contained within?
the 'Golden Rule': “do not that to another which thou thinkest unreasonable to be done by another to thyself” (Lev. XVI)
40
what is the 'Golden Rule' of the laws of nature?
all laws of nature are contained within the ‘Golden Rule’: “do not that to another which thou thinkest unreasonable to be done by another to thyself” (Lev. XVI)
41
list some of the laws of nature.
1st Law: seek peace and follow it
2nd Law: by all means we can defend ourselves
3rd Law: justice
4th Law: gratitude
5th Law: compleasance / sociable / mutual accommodation
6th Law: facility to pardon
7th Law: that in revenges, men respect only the future good
8th Law: against contumely
9th Law: against pride
10th Law: against arrogance
11th Law: equity
12th Law: equal use of things common
13th Law: that the entire right, or else the first possession, be determined by lot
14th Law: of lots there be two sorts, arbitrary and natural
15th Law: that all men that mediate peace, be allowed safe conduct
16th Law: that they that are at controversy submit their right to the judgement of an arbitrator
17th Law: no man is his own judge
18th Law: no man to be judge that has in him a natural cause of partiality
19th Law: of witnesses
42
what, if any, is the difference between law of nature and civil law?
law of nature and the civil law are not different kinds, but different parts of law; civil part being written, natural part being unwritten
43
what does Hobbes mean by 'equal by nature'?
men are equal by nature in that they are all capable of dominating and being dominated
“equal in faculties of body and mind” (Lev. XIII) to the extent that no person is so strong as to be invulnerable to attack, nor is any so strong to be assured of dominating all others
44
why does conflict follow from equality by nature?
equality naturally leads to conflict among individuals for three reasons: competition, distrust & glory
“from this equality of ability, ariseth equality of hope in the attaining of our ends. Therefore if any two men desire the same thing, which nevertheless they cannot both enjoy, they become enemies…and endeavour to destroy one another” (Lev. XIII)
45
what are the three reasons that natural equality leads to conflict?
competition
- if two individuals desire a scarce commodity, they will compete for the commodity and necessarily become enemies
- in their efforts to acquire desired objects, each person tries to destroy or subdue the other
distrust
- on account of the constant fear produced in the SoN, it is reasonable to distrust others and use preemptive strikes against one’s enemies
glory
- Hobbes considers humans to be naturally vainglorious and so seek to dominate others and demand their respect
46
what is Hobbes' view of gender?
Hobbes was one of the earliest Western philosophers to count women as persons when devising a social contract among person - insisting on the equality of all people, very explicitly including women
people are equal because they are all subject to domination, and all potentially capable of dominating others
- in this relevant sense, women are naturally equal to men
- they are equally naturally free, meaning that their consent is required before they will be under the authority of anyone else
however, Hobbes spoke of the commonwealth in patriarchal language
- e.g. in the move from the state of nature to civil society, families are described as “fathers”, “servants”, and “children”, seemingly obliterating mothers from the picture entirely
47
why is Hobbes' view on gender contradictory?
on the one hand, he was one of the first western philosophers to explicitly include women as people in his idea of the commonwealth & maintain natural equality of all peoples
on the other hand, Hobbes' conception of the commonwealth was inherently patriarchal, using patriarchal language to describe its creation
48
why is Hobbes' view on race contradictory?
similar ambiguities as with women
on the one hand, he invokes the “savages” of the Americas to illustrate the “brutish” conditions of life in the state of nature
on the other hand, he denies that there are innate or immutable differences between Native Americans & Europeans
49
what characteristic of the laws of nature lead individuals to willingly enter into a social contract?
the laws of nature are contrary to our natural passions and so to escape this tumultuous condition, individuals should willingly enter into a covenant or social contract
50
is the social contract concord or unity?
Hobbes doesn't believe in concord but rather unity
"this is more than consent, or concord; it is real unity of them all" (Lev.XVII)
51
cite this quote: "this is more than consent, or concord; it is real unity of them all"
Leviathan, Chapter 17
52
who are the contracts /covenants between? and why?
contracts are with each other NOT the sovereign
- "every man with every man" (Lev.XVII)
if it were a contract with the sovereign, they might break that contract and there would be no security
53
when the people transfer their rights to the sovereign, how is it done?
willingly & equally so that each individual is still the author of the actions, while the sovereign is the one doing the action
54
what are the obligations this covenant brings about?
by surrendering their rights and powers, individuals are obliged to obey the laws and directives set forth by the sovereign
55
what are the liberties gained through the covenant?
by willingly transferring their rights, individuals gain the liberty to live without constant fear and insecurity
56
what are the two, equally legitimate, ways of attained sovereign power?
sovereign power through acquisition
sovereign power through institution
both have the same underlying motivation of fear
57
what is the underlying motivation of both ways of gaining sovereignty?
fear
58
what is sovereignty by acquisition?
sovereignty gained through acquisition by natural force or war
“it is not the victory that giveth the right of dominion over the vanquished, but his own covenant” (Lev.XX)
59
what is sovereignty by institution?
sovereignty gained through institution where “men agree amongst themselves to submit to some man or assembly of men on confidence to be protected by him against all others” (Lev.XVI)
“confer all their power and strength upon one man, or upon one assembly of men, that may reduce all their wills, by plurality of voices, unto one will” (Lev.XVII)
“this is more than consent, or concord; it is a real unity of them all” (Lev.XVII)
60
which part of Leviathan is the sovereign?
the soul
61
what role does the sovereign play?
the maker of laws, the judge of first principles, the foundation of all knowledge, and the defender of civil peace
the final arbiter and decision-maker in all matters concerning the governance of the commonwealth
62
is the sovereign's power restricted in any way?
the sovereign's power is unchecked & unrestricted
allows it to establish and enforce laws, resolve disputes, and maintain peace and order within society
the sovereign is the sole legislator (makes the law) & not subject to civil law
63
what part of Leviathan is the judiciary?
the joints of the limbs
64
what part of Leviathan are the offices of reward and punishment?
the nerves
65
what part of Leviathan is the nation's wealth?
strength (muscles)
66
what part of Leviathan are the counsellors
memory
67
what part of Leviathan are the laws?
reason & will
68
what part of Leviathan is peace?
health
69
what part of Leviathan is sedition?
illness
70
what part of Leviathan is civil war?
death
71
what are the three types of commonwealth?
three types: monarchy, aristocracy & democracy
- monarchy: when the representative is one man
- democracy / popular commonwealth: when an assembly of all that will come together
- aristocracy: when an assembly of a part only
72
how does Hobbes differ from Aristotle in terms of defining types of commonwealth?
unlike Aristotle, Hobbes doesn’t subdivide types into “good” and “deviant”
the other types e.g. tyranny & oligarchy, are not other forms of government, but the same forms misliked
- those discontented under monarchy call it tyranny; and those displeased with aristocracy call it oligarchy
73
what is the religious connotation of 'Leviathan'?
‘Leviathan’ is a reference to a powerful sea monster in the biblical Book of Job
in Christianity, the image of Leviathan is often employed to represent the power of people united, which is exactly how Hobbes sees his ideal commonwealth
74
which is the best form of government according to Hobbes?
absolute monarchy
the best form of government & the only one that can guarantee peace
75
why does Hobbes think that absolute monarchy is the best form of government?
in general, Hobbes seeks to define the rational bases upon which a civil society could be constructed that would not be subject to destruction from within
accordingly, he delineates how best to minimise discord, disagreement, and factionalism within society - whether between state and church, between rival governments, or between different contending philosophies
any such conflict leads to civil war, and civil war is the death of the commonwealth
thus he advocates that all members of society submit to one absolute, central authority (the monarch) for the sake of maintaining common peace
the sovereign (monarch) is empowered to run the government, to determine all laws, to be in charge of the church, to determine first principles, and to adjudicate in philosophical disputes
76
was Hobbes an absolutist? if so, why?
yes
although Hobbes offered some mild pragmatic grounds for preferring monarchy to other forms of government, his main concern was to argue that effective government - whatever its form - must have absolute authority
- power must be neither divided nor limited
only a government that possesses all of what Hobbes terms the “essential rights of sovereignty” can be reliably effective, since where partial sets of these rights are held by different bodies that disagree in their judgments as to what is to be done, paralysis of effective government, or degeneration into a civil war to settle their dispute, may occur
similarly, to impose limitation on the authority of the government is to invite irresoluble disputes over whether it has overstepped those limits
77
what is the difference between totalitarianism & absolutism?
practicalities (a modern totalitarian state can achieve more than an early modern absolutist state given the increase is state power)
fear of anarchy was much more real threat in early modern period; there was genuine fear of total anarchy and breakdown
78
was Hobbes a negative or positive libertist on the whole?
negative libertist
he believed that true liberty of the subject was non-intereference
- peace is secured through the rule of law, and where the laws are silent, as at some points they must be, men are free to do as they please (Runciman, 1997)
"liberty signifies the absence of opposition" (Lev.XXI)
"a free man is he, that in those things which by his strength and with he is able to do, is not hindered to do what he has a will to" (Lev.XXI)
79
cite this quote: "liberty signifies the absence of opposition"
Hobbes. Leviathan. XXI
80
cite this quote: "a free man is he, that in those things which by his strength and with he is able to do, is not hindered to do what he has a will to"
Hobbes. Leviathan. XXI
81
can fear & liberty be consistent for Hobbes?
yes
“fear and liberty are consistent; as when a man throws his goods into the sea for fear the ship should sink, he nevertheless does it very willingly and may refuse to do it if he will” (Lev.XXI)
individuals voluntarily transfer their rights to the sovereign on the understanding that the sovereign’s authority will protect them from the chaos and violence of the SoN
citizens do it “most willingly” even when doing so out of fear
82
are liberty of the subject & absolute authority of the sovereign consistent?
yes
liberty of the subject is consistent with the unlimited power of the sovereign (Lev.XXI)
83
does Hobbes support a republican conception of liberty?
no
he believes that true liberty of the subject is non-interference, as when the law is silent, the subject can do what they want (Lev. XXI)
also believes that republics are more likely to force you to do things that you wouldn't want to e.g. fight for the republic
in this way, disagrees with Machiavelli
84
why did Hobbes reject the republican conception of liberty?
to undermine parliamentarian claims (English civil war context)
to delegitimise other forms of liberty
85
where does the sovereign derive authority from?
the authority of the sovereign is derived from the consent of the individuals who enter into this covenant
NOT based on divine right or inherited authority
86
what are the limits of sovereign power?
“there being no obligation on any man, which ariseth not from some act of his own; for all men equally, are by nature free” (Lev.XXI)
“the obligation of subjects to the sovereign, is understood to last as long, and no longer, than the power lasteth, by which he is able to protect them. For the right men have by nature to protect themselves, when none else can protect them, can by no covenant be relinquished’ (Lev.XXI)
87
how does Hobbes include representation as the embodiment of the collective will?
sovereign's power founded on consent & delegation of power by the individuals
this transfer of authority creates unified entity, or commonwealth, which is responsible for governing and protecting society
sovereign acts as 'artificial soul' of Leviathan
tasked with making decisions and enacting laws that are in the best interests of the collective, sovereign reflects common will of the people
88
how does Hobbes show the representative nature of the sovereign when discussing the deliberation process?
“one person…have made themselves every one the author, to the end he may use the strength and means of all, as he shall think expedient, for their peace and common defence.” (Lev.XVII)
89
is the sovereign guided by personal preferences?
no - considers & represents the will of the people
90
how does Hobbes's political representation differ from modern political representation?
election & participation
- Hobbes did NOT advocate for a system of government where representatives are elected by the people to make decisions on their behalf
- although the authority of the sovereign is borne out of the consent of the individuals who surrendered their rights, it is not bound by their ongoing consent or approval
succession
- Hobbes believed hereditary succession was practical and efficient method for maintaining stability and avoiding potential conflicts over power (Lev.XIX)
91
is the sovereign strictly representative of the people's desires or just of an idea of what the people's desires are?
absolute sovereignty, in Hobbes’ sense of unchecked power & authority, is not strictly representative of the people's desires but of an idea that the sovereign holds about what the desires of the people are
92
is the sovereign bound by the ongoing consent or approval of the people?
no
although the authority of the sovereign is borne out of the consent of the individuals who surrendered their rights, it is not bound by their ongoing consent or approval
initial social contract that Hobbes believes is important for the sovereign to represent the subject’s will
93
what is Hobbes's approach to succession?
hereditary succession
hereditary succession is practical and efficient method for maintaining stability and avoiding potential conflicts over power (Lev.XIX)
provides a clear and predictable line of succession which prevents power struggles and political instability arising from contested succession
94
why does Hobbes support hereditary succession?
provides a clear & predictable line of succession which prevents power struggles and political instability arising from contested succession
issues of contested succession shown by de facto transfer of power in the English Civil War
95
is there an issue with the idea of hereditary succession?
considering the authority of the sovereign rests on the consent of the people, this hereditary succession seems to fail as the people only consented to transfer rights to the original sovereign representative, not the replacement
96
what are some challenges to Hobbes's conception of representation?
lack of individual representation
educational issues
tyranny
97
what is the lack of individual representation challenge to Hobbes's theory of representation?
once rights have been surrendered, there can be no change of the form of government by anyone but the sovereign nor can anyone disagree with the actions of the sovereign (Lev.XVIII)
98
how could Hobbes respond to the lack of individual representation challenge?
because every subject is, by the institution, author of all of the actions and judgements of the sovereign, it follows that, whatever he does, it cannot cause injury to any of his subjects nor can he be accused of injustice by any of them (Lev.XVIII)
99
why do educational issues exacerbate the problem of a lack of individual representation and individualism?
Hobbes argues that people should be taught “that they ought not to be in love with any form of government they see in their neighbours’ nations, more than their own, nor desire to change” and also how “great a fault it is to speak evil of the sovereign representative or argue and dispute his power” (Lev.XXX)
if there can be no challenging of the sovereign’s power or decisions after conferring their rights to him and individuals must simply obey, how can their voices and desires be heard and therefore how can they be truly represented in this commonwealth?
100
what is the tyrannical risk?
risk of sovereign becoming tyrannical when allowed such absolute power & authority
101
how can Hobbes respond to the risk of tyranny?
“the obligation of subjects to the sovereign is understood to last as long, and no longer, than the power lasts by which he is able to protect them” (Lev.XXI)
as soon as the state becomes tyrannical, subjects are freed from the obligation of the covenant
political obligation ends when protection ceases, that is the state fails to be representative / fails to be better than the SoN
102
does Hobbes allow revolution / resistance? if so, when?
yes, while Hobbes was a strong advocate for absolute sovereignty & obedience to the state, he allowed a limited right to revolt in cases of extreme necessity
subjects retain natural right to self-preservation and self-defence
can disobey state in cases where sovereign intrudes on their natural right to self-preservation and thus is no better than the SoN
103
is there any contradiction in Hobbes's theory of revolution?
yes
if subjects can judge for themselves the adequacy of state protection, then did people ever really leave the SoN?
impossible for "people to authorise an absolute sovereign while at the same time reserving to themselves the right to resist under certain circumstances" (Hampton)
104
what was the historical context of Hobbes' religion?
influence of the Thirty Years War shown in Leviathan
- Thirty Years War was a religious war across the Holy Roman Empire
1640s - early 1650s: Episcopal Church of England had been abolished & a new settlement seemed elusive
105
what was Hobbes' approach to religion in society?
Hobbes’s approach to religion, like his political thought, took human beings as its starting point (Mortimer, 2013)
- religious belief was one of the central features of human life; it was one of the crucial characteristics that differentiated men from animals.
- religion arose because the human desire for power & control could never be fully satisfied, and men would always feel, at least to some extent, at the mercy of forces beyond their control
- "the natural cause of religion, [is] the anxiety of the time to come” (Lev.XII)
while Hobbes was willing to acknowledge that there could be successful commonwealths without Christianity or revelation - the Roman republic was one - he does not seem to have thought that there could be commonwealths without religion
106
why did Hobbes believe religion an inevitable feature of human life?
religion arose because the human desire for power & control could never be fully satisfied, and men would always feel, at least to some extent, at the mercy of forces beyond their control
“the natural cause of religion, [is] the anxiety of the time to come” (Lev.XII)
107
why was Hobbes considered by some as an unusual Christian / not a Christian at all?
Hobbes was a most unusual Christian, so unusual that some have doubted whether he deserved to be counted as a Christian at all (Mortimer, 2013)
his works contained scathing critiques of the Christian clergy, at times pouring scorn on doctrines which his contemporaries considered central to the Christian religion
and yet, Hobbes certainly recognised the potential power of the Christian story, and his works of civil philosophy were designed to establish not merely a commonwealth but a Christian Commonwealth (Mortimer, 2013)
108
why was a "true" Christian commonwealth the most stable & peaceful kind?
Leviathan showed how Christian doctrines could satisfy men’s fears in ways which also contributed to peace & stability here on earth
Christianity, once interpreted correctly, could successfully fulfill the natural human desire for religion & could do so in a way that united the commonwealth
109
why was Christianity so important in Hobbes' commonwealth?
death is centrally important for Hobbes because it marks the limits of the sovereign’s power
the most effective challenge to the sovereign’s power will also be a challenge to the finality of death
New Testament holds out to Christians the promise of eternal life, and the message of Christ and the Apostles found there is clear: it is better to obey God than man
a true interpretation will show how the Christian scriptures, rightly understood, complement natural religion and civil society rather than undermining either
the central human problem, for Hobbes, is death, and he suggested that Christianity was uniquely able to resolve this problem through the promise of eternal life (deals with the anxiety created by the prospect of death)
110
what were the limitations to religion?
Hobbes acknowledged that religion, like other social practices, provides many opportunities for domination, and that people can use religion to win the power over others that they naturally seek
- paradigmatically true in the Church of Rome, where the pope & his priests have made the laity subservient to them, but it stems from the very nature of religion
Hobbes felt that the Christianity he saw around him, especially in its Roman Catholic and Presbyterian forms, was based on ignorance and pride and had the potential to overturn the commonwealth
111
why did Hobbes believe religion to be at the cause of the English Civil War?
in Behemoth, Hobbes showed readers that an ideological dispute concerning politics and religion was the root cause of the English Civil War
claimed that religious leaders were mostly to blame for creating dissension in the commonwealth because they are responsible for the dissemination of politically dangerous beliefs
