Plato Flashcards
(101 cards)
1
Q
appetite
A
the largest aspect of our tripartite soul. It is the seat of all our various desires for food, drink, sexual gratification, etc. it contains necessary desires, unnecessary desires and unlawful desires
2
Q
aristocracy (aristokratia)
A
rule by the best
3
Q
auxiliaries
A
the auxiliaries are the warriors, responsible for defending the city from invaders, and for keeping the peace at home. They must enforce the convictions of the guardians, and ensure that the producers obey
4
Q
censorship
A
suppression or prohibition of literature, art, and music to ensure that only content that promotes virtue and the ideal state’s values is allowed
5
Q
democracy (demokratia)
A
rule of the many, people power
6
Q
dikaiosyne
A
justice, righteousness
7
Q
ethos
A
character, way of life
8
Q
Forms
A
according to Plato’s metaphysical theory, there is an aspect of reality beyond the one which we can see, an aspect of reality even more real than the one we see. This aspect of reality is comprised of unchanging, eternal, absolute entities called “Forms”
these Forms are abstract, perfect, unchanging concepts or ideals that transcend time and space
9
Q
governance
A
likened to the command of a ship
10
Q
guardians
A
the guardians are responsible for ruling the city. They are chosen from among the ranks of the auxiliaries, and are also known as philosopher-kings
11
Q
justice (Polemarchus)
A
justice is “to give to each man what is proper to him” or “what is due ‘’’ = “to benefit one’s friends and harm one’s enemies” (Republic. I. 332d)
12
Q
justice (Thrasymachus)
A
Thrasymachus offers four definitions of justice: (Republic. I)
- justice is the advantage of the stronger (338c)
- justice is the advantage of the ruler(s) (338e)
- justice is obeying the laws of the ruler (conventionalism / legalism) (339c)
- justice is the advantage of another (343c)
13
Q
justice (Plato)
A
justice as an overarching virtue of both individuals and societies, each part of the city and the psyche “having and doing its own” work
14
Q
kallipolis
A
Greek term for Plato’s ideal, just city
15
Q
monarchy (monarchia)
A
monarchy, rule by one
16
Q
noble lie
A
noble lies are myths deliberately constructed and disseminated by rulers of the state to promote social cohesion, maintain order, and reinforce the hierarchical structure of society
17
Q
oligarchy (oligarchia)
A
oligarchy, rule by the few
18
Q
paideia
A
education
19
Q
philosopher-king
A
the ruler of the kallipolis
they are the only people who can grasp the Forms, and thus the only people who can claim actual knowledge
since the philosopher-king yearns after truth above all else, he is also the most just man
20
Q
politeia
A
constitution, regime
21
Q
producers
A
the producer class is the largest class of society; it is a catch-all group that includes all professions other than warrior and ruler
in a just society, the producers have no share in ruling, but merely obey what the rulers decree
they focus exclusively on producing whatever it is that they are best suited to produce
22
Q
res publica
A
commonwealth
23
Q
sophists
A
teachers-for-hire who educated the wealthy men of Athens in the 5th Century BC
they tended to share a disregard for the notion of objective truth and knowledge
one of the guiding motivations in all of Plato’s work was to prove the sophists wrong: to show that there is such a thing as objective truth, and that we can have knowledge of this objective truth
24
Q
specialisation
A
every man must fulfill the societal role to which nature best suits him, and should refrain from engaging in any other business
Plato believes that this simple rule is the guiding principle of society, and the source of political justice
25
spirit
one aspect of our tripartite soul
it is the source of our honour-loving and victory-loving desires
in a just soul, spirit acts as henchman to reason, ensuring that appetite adheres to reason’s command
26
technē
art, craft or skill
27
timocracy
half way between aristocracy and oligarchy. Aristocratic in the sense that rulers are respected, oligarchic in the sense that the rulers have a passion for wealth, which they keep hidden
Spartan, Cretan and Laconian Constitutions were timocratic
28
tripartite soul
the human soul has three parts corresponding to the three classes of society in a just city
individual justice consists in maintaining these three parts in the correct power relationships, with reason ruling, spirit aiding reason, and appetite obeying
29
tyranny
emerges from the insatiable desire for freedom, the rule of an individual solely in his own benefit
30
vocational education
education to complete individual role in life
31
who is Socrates?
a philosopher, Plato's teacher
32
who is Glaucon?
an Athenian aristocrat, Plato's brother
33
who is Adeimantus?
an Athenian aristocrat, Plato's brother
34
Who is Cephalus?
A metic (resident foreigner of Athens) & wealthy arms-
dealer
dedicated his life to making money by living in a foreign city & renouncing all the rights, duties & activities of a citizen
35
what is the point of having Cephalus in Book I?
point of having him in Book I was to show Plato’s contempt for money making & for the complacency it engenders
36
Who is Polemarchus?
a democrat, son of Cephalus
37
what is the point of having Polemarchus in Book I?
point of having him in Book I was to show the limits of moral complacency & to depict the ordinary person’s view of justice (think of justice very externally)
38
What are Polemarchus' views on justice?
defines justice as giving what is due: good to one's friends, bad to one's enemies (I.331d)
39
Who is Thrasymachus?
A metic & sophist (travelling teacher)
Plato wants us to dislike him; rude & ignorant
40
What are Thrasymachus' views on justice?
1. justice is the advantage of the stronger (I.338c)
2. justice is the advantage of the ruler(s) (I.338e)
3. justice is obeying the laws of the ruler (I.339c)
4. justice is the advantage of another (I.343c)
41
what is the tripartition of the soul?
soul is split into three parts (reason, spirit, appetite)
42
what are the three parts of the soul?
three parts of the soul: (Republic. IX. 580d-e)
1. reason - part which a person learns (learning-loving, philosophic)
2. spirit - part with which he gets angry (victory-loving part)
3. appetite - part which pursues bodily desires (money-loving and profit-loving part)
43
when / how are the three parts of the soul in harmony?
“when the entire soul follows the philosophic part, and there is no civil war in it, each part of it does its own work exclusively and is just, and in particular it enjoys its own pleasures, the best and truest pleasures possible for it”
"ought to be a slave of that best person who has a divine ruler within himself" (Republic. IX)
- a person of understanding will direct all his efforts to attain the best nature of his soul (acquiring moderation, justice, and reason) (591c)
- "he will always cultivate the harmony of his body for the sake of the consonance in his soul" (Republic. IX)
44
cite this quote: "ought to be a slave of that best person who has a divine ruler within himself".
Republic. IX
45
cite this quote: “he will always cultivate the harmony of his body for the sake of the consonance in his soul”.
Republic. IX
46
what is tripartition of the people?
three types of people: philosophic, victory-loving & profit-loving (Republic. I)
47
what are the three types of people?
three types of people: philosophic, victory-loving & profit-loving (Republic. I)
philosophic (learning-loving)
- ruled by reason, love wisdom and truth
- a philosopher is far superior to a profit-lover in his experience of both their pleasures (582b)
- he is the finest judge of the three (582d)
victory-loving
- ruled by spirit, love victory & honour
profit-loving
- ruled by appetite, love profit and money
48
what is tripartition of the city?
city divided into three classes: guardians (philosophic), auxiliaries (victory-loving), producers (profit-loving)
49
what are three classes of people within the kallipolis?
city divided into three classes: guardians (philosophic), auxiliaries (victory-loving), producers (profit-loving)
50
how should the three classes of people interact within the kallipolis?
just as the rational part of the soul should govern the spirited and appetitive parts, so too should the philosopher-kings govern the auxiliaries & citizens because the philosopher-kings are the individuals who have been trained in philosophy and have therefore developed the rational part of their souls to the fullest extent possible
51
what is specialisation? why is it important in the kallipolis?
specialisation is one of the fundamental features of kallipolis, where each person performs the task that they are best naturally suited for
- easier & more efficient to work on one craft than many
- "the more plentiful and better-quality goods are more easily produced if each person does one thing for which he is naturally suited, does it at the right time, and is released from having to do any of the others" (Republic. II)
51
cite this quote: “the more plentiful and better-quality goods are more easily produced if each person does one thing for which he is naturally suited, does it at the right time, and is released from having to do any of the others”.
Republic. II
52
what are Plato's views on the family structure & reproduction?
abandonment of a typical family, and as such no child may not know his or her parents and the parents may not know their own children
rulers assemble couples for reproduction, based on breeding criteria (eugenics)
stable population is achieved through eugenics & social cohesion is projected to be high because familial links are extended towards everyone in the city
53
what is the purpose of education in the kallipolis?
the purpose of education is not to acquire knowledge for its own sake but rather to cultivate virtue in the individual
Plato believes that only those who have been properly educated & have developed the virtues of wisdom, courage & moderation are capable of ruling justly
54
what are Plato's views on education?
education should begin in childhood & should be carefully structured to develop virtuous qualities
- depending on their role in the city, individuals receive different education, with the guardians receiving by far the most extensive
Plato believes that only those who have been properly educated & have developed the virtues of wisdom, courage & moderation are capable of ruling justly
- in the kallipolis, only the guardians possess the necessary wisdom to make decisions that benefit the entire city as they have a deep understanding of the good
each citizen is educated in a way that is appropriate to their station in life & this awareness means that citizens will have a sense of loyalty & mutual respect that is necessary for the city to function smoothly
- "the power that consists in everyone doing his own work rivals wisdom, moderation, and courage in its contribution to the virtue of the city" (Republic. IV. 433d)
55
how does specialised education improve the virtue of the kallipolis?
each citizen being educated in a way that is appropriate to their station in life means that citizens will have a sense of loyalty & mutual respect that is necessary for the city to function smoothly
"the power that consists in everyone doing his own work rivals wisdom, moderation, and courage in its contribution to the virtue of the city" (Republic. IV. 433d)
56
cite this quote: “the power that consists in everyone doing his own work rivals wisdom, moderation, and courage in its contribution to the virtue of the city”
Republic. IV. 433d
57
what are Plato's views on property?
Plato argued that private property should not exist & property should fall under the 'umbrella' of joint ownership to ensure peace & justice
owning objects is detrimental to a person’s character
collective ownership necessary to promote common pursuit of the common interest & to avoid the social divisiveness that greed could create
58
does Plato support the idea of private property?
no, he argued that private property should not exist & property should fall under the 'umbrella' of joint ownership to ensure peace & justice
owning objects is detrimental to a person’s character
collective ownership necessary to promote common pursuit of the common interest & to avoid the social divisiveness that greed could create
59
what purpose did the preliminary discussion of justice in Book I serve?
preliminary discussion of justice in Book I served two purposes: (Cross & Woozley, 1964)
1. by finding fault in the two accounts of justice advanced by Polemarchus & Thrasymachus, Plato revealed the inadequacies & superficialities of conventional approaches to justice
2. Thrasymachus’s thesis raised the question whether justice was any kind of good at all
rest of the Republic is devoted to these two main questions: what is justice? what kind of good (if any) is it?
60
what is Polemarchus' definition of justice?
justice is “to give to each man what is proper to him” or “what is due ''' = “to benefit one’s friends and harm one’s enemies” (Republic. 332d)
61
how does Socrates refute Polemarchus' definition of justice?
Socrates advances four arguments against this view
1. on this view justice is trivial (332c-333e)
2. on this view justice is as much a vice as a virtue (333e-334b)
3. by Polemarchus’ view of friend & foe it will sometimes be just to harm one’s friends & to benefit one’s enemies (334b-334e)
4. by Polemarchus’ view justice will sometimes produce injustice (334e-335e)
62
what are Thrasymachus' definition(s) of justice?
1. justice is the advantage of the stronger (338c)
2 . justice is the advantage of the ruler(s) (338e)
3. justice is obeying the laws of the ruler (conventionalism / legalism) (339c)
4. justice is the advantage of another (343c)
63
what is the story of Gyges' Ring? what does it imply?
Glaucon tells the story to show how people can apparently benefit from acting unjustly
- ring renders the wearer invisible. Using this power, Gyges seduces the King’s wife, murdered the King and took over the Kingdom
- Glaucon: with the ring, the just person would act just like the unjust person
- Gyges’ story separates the social consequences of justice from its intrinsic consequences
- implication: there is no intrinsic value to justice; injustice is the ideal
64
having discussed the story of Gyges' Ring, what classification of goods does Glaucon introduce?
Glaucon classifies 3 kinds of good:
1. those which we welcome for their own sake, and not for the sake of their consequences
- e.g. happiness
2. those which we welcome both for their own sake, and for the sake of their consequences
- e.g. good sense, judgement, eyesight & health
3. those which we do not welcome for their own sake, but which we would say bring beneficial benefits
- e.g. physical training, medical treatment
65
what class of good does Glaucon assign justice to?
assigns justice to the third class (those which we do not welcome for their own sake, but which we would say bring beneficial benefits)
- burden that nevertheless brings rewards
- the only reason anyone conducts themselves virtuously is due to external influences (appearing rather than being virtuous)
66
what class of good does Socrates assign justice to?
assigns justice to second class (those which we welcome both for their own sake, and for the sake of their consequences)
- justice offers both extrinsic & intrinsic benefits
67
how does Socrates respond to the story of Gyges' Ring?
Socrates uses tripartition of the soul to show that Gyges (the tyrant) would be guided by appetite & enslaved to his own base desires so wouldn’t be truly happy
- while Gyges may have attained power & wealth, his soul would be in disharmony
68
what justifications for justice does the Republic offer, according to Kraut (2006)?
the Republic seems to present four independent attempts to support the conclusion that justice pays apart from its consequences (Kraut, 2006)
1. at the end of Book IV, we learn that justice is a certain harmonious arrangement of the parts of the soul (related to the soul as health is related to the body, and since life is not worth living if one’s health is ruined)
2. in Book IX, Plato compares the five types of people he has been portraying in the middle books – the philosophical ruler, the timocrat, the oligarch, the democrat, and the tyrant – and declares that the happiest of them is the philosopher, since he exercises kingly rule over himself (580a–c)
3. book IX immediately proceeds to argue that the philosophical life has more pleasure than any other, since the philosopher is in the best position to compare the various pleasures available to different types of people and prefers philosophical pleasures to all others (580c–583a)
4. the pleasures of the philosophical life are shown to be more real and therefore greater than the pleasures of any other sort of life (583b–588a)
mustn’t analyse Books II-IV in isolation as together they are meant to provide a complete defence of justice (Kraut, 2006)
69
how does Plato use the city-soul analogy to show that the just person is better off than the unjust person?
if Socrates is able to show how a just city is always happier than unjust cities, then he can have a model by which to argue that a just person is always happier than an unjust one
in the Republic, the city-soul analogy made by Plato paves the way for the entire dialogue
- the main interlocutors use the analogy to show the nature of justice & aim to prove that just people live better & are happier than unjust people, by establishing a city to which justice, as defined by them, is applied
in making this connection between social harmony & the harmony of Forms, Plato offers an account of the positive appeal that justice in human relationships should have for us (Kraut, 2006)
70
why is it better to be an unrewarded just person than a rewarded unjust person?
when erotic desires are allowed to grow to full strength, they become impossible to satisfy; rather than leading to a life of peace and fulfilment, they leave one with a chronic feeling of frustration (579d–e)
- certain desires, if unchecked, lead to the sorts of consequences - frustration, fear, pain - that everyone tries to avoid and that no one regards as compatible with a fully happy human life (Kraut, 2006)
tyrannical power inevitably gives rise to continual fear of reprisals & an absence of trust in one’s associates (576a)
70
what obligations are the philosophers in the kallipolis bound by?
philosophers of the ideal city must not be allowed to study the Forms without interruption, but must instead return to the darkness of the cave & help administer the political community (519d–521b)
philosophers must rule in the kallipolis (even if they do not want to)
71
why is Plato confident that the philosophers will accept the requirement to rule? (Kraut, 2006)
Plato thinks that ruling the state is a just requirement & since he believes that justice is always in one’s interest, he must think that somehow it does pay to rule the city
when the philosophers rule, they do not stop looking to or imitating the Forms. Rather, their imitative activity is no longer merely contemplative; instead, they start acting in a way that produces a harmony in the city that is a likeness of the harmony of the Forms
by refusing / shirking their responsibilities, a philosopher would create disharmony & therefore cease to imitate the Forms
72
what role does education play in the kallipolis?
Plato believes the (rational) soul is immortal & in some way has pre-existent knowledge which must be drawn out by the process of education
- education is not the process of “putting knowledge into souls that lack it, like putting sight into blind eyes” (Republic. VII)
- education is the craft of effectively turning around the soul in the cave (Republic. VII)
- “education takes for granted that sight is there but that it isn’t turned the right way or looking where it ought to look, and tries to redirect it appropriately” (Republic. VII)
73
cite this quote: education is not the process of “putting knowledge into souls that lack it, like putting sight into blind eyes”.
Republic. VII
74
cite this quote: education is the craft of effectively turning around the soul in the cave.
Republic. VII
75
cite this quote: “education takes for granted that sight is there but that it isn’t turned the right way or looking where it ought to look, and tries to redirect it appropriately”.
Republic. VII
76
what was the historical context in which Plato's views on education were formed?
most characteristic of Athenian life was the general opinion that education - culture & civic education - was an art to be learned by each individual
aim of education for Athenian women was more at the level of training, enabling them to master domestic tasks rather than intellectual
- most Athenian girls were only educated in the home
first to suggest equal education for men & women based on their natural ability to learn
- perhaps influenced by the system of education developed in Sparta
Plato founded the Academy in 387BC, the first institution of higher learning in Greece
77
what was the Academy?
Plato founded the Academy in 387 BC, the first institution of higher learning in Greece
Became the intellectual centre in Greece & continued for over 900 years
the ultimate object of all activities at the Academy was to achieve final philosophic truth
method of teaching was by question & answer, argument, and discussion
Plato wrote the Meno & Protagorus around the same time as he founded the Academy; can clearly see in the dialogues how much he was thinking about education & educational issues at the time
78
what was Plato's philosophy of education?
implicit in a philosophy of education is an underlying understanding of who the student is to be educated
in Platonic philosophy, the highest faculty for man is reason which is rooted in the soul
the soul, especially the rational soul, is immortal & in some way has pre-existing knowledge which must be ‘drawn out’ by the process of education
Plato saw equality in men & women in their personhood - was one of the first to propose equal education for men & women based on their ability to learn, not on their gender
79
what was the role of teachers in Plato's education?
the teacher’s role is to be both a master & a mentor for the student
the student would learn by observing the teacher, participate in the activity under the direction of the expert & then imitate the movements & skills of the teacher
relationship between teacher & student should be one of adoration & love (Republic. X)
- learning will take place more easily when the learned & the teacher have a great love for one another
80
what is involved in the early education (0-7 years) in the republic?
the first 7 years of a child’s life are crucial for developing good character
during this period, children should be raised in a communal setting & receive a basic education that focuses on physical fitness, music, and stories that instil moral values
“good education and upbringing, when they are preserved, produce good natures, and useful natures, who are in turn well educated, grow up even better than their predecessors” (Republic. IV)
81
what is involved in the formal education (7-18 years) in the republic?
at 7 children are sorted based on their abilities. Those with the potential to become philosopher-kings or guardians are selected for a more rigorous education
curriculum is carefully chosen to include training for the spirit (music) & training for the body (gymnastics), with more difficult academic subjects added when the child is developmentally ready
music in particular is seen as essential for shaping the soul & instilling values
- “education in music and poetry are most important: first, because rhythm and harmony permeate the inner part of the soul more than anything else, affecting it most strongly and bringing it grace. Second, because anyone who has been properly educated in music and poetry will sense it acutely when something has been omitted from a thing and when it hasn’t been finely crafted or finely made by nature” (Republic. III)
however, a mix is important
- “physical training without training in music and poetry leads to savagery and toughness. Training in music and poetry without physical training leads to softness and overcultivation” (Republic. III)
82
cite this quote: “physical training without training in music and poetry leads to savagery and toughness. Training in music and poetry without physical training leads to softness and overcultivation”
Republic. III
83
does Plato support vocational education?
yes, Plato supported vocational education - education to complete their role in life. Education for the producer, the guardians & the philosopher-kings
84
how does Plato suggest introducing students to the Forms? why does he do this?
philosophical education aims to introduce students to the Forms through dialectical reasoning & philosophical inquiry
this education prepares them for leadership roles
85
does Plato's education involve censorship?
Plato advocated for strict censorship of literature, art & music to ensure that only content that promotes virtue & the ideal state’s values is allowed
this censorship intended to prevent corrupting influences on citizens
86
why does Plato include physical training in his education?
physical fitness & training are essential components of education as they help develop courage & discipline in individuals
aimed at producing strong & capable guardians
87
what were Plato's views on women's inclusion in education?
equal education for men & women based on their ability to learn, not on their gender
- "if we expect them to fulfil the same tasks, we would have to give both males and females the same upbringing and education" (Republic. Book V)
A woman is by nature different from a man but nonetheless has to “fight the same battle”
88
cite this quote: “if we expect them to fulfil the same tasks, we would have to give both males and females the same upbringing and education”.
Republic. V
89
what are noble lies? how are they justified?
noble lies are myths deliberately constructed & disseminated by rulers of the state to promote social cohesion, maintain order & reinforce the hierarchical structure of society
- considered noble because they are believed to serve the greater good of the city & its citizens
the lie is justified if it is only used to set up the city, might need a few blunt tools at the start to get people into the starting position
90
why is the justification of noble lies limited?
the lie is justified if it is only used to set up the city, might need a few blunt tools at the start to get people into the starting position
HOWEVER, it seems it is required throughout
91
what is the overarching story of noble lies?
overarching story of education & human nature
Plato chose to end the Republic with the Myth of Er partly in order to extend an account, launched in the Myth of Metals and continued in the Allegory of the Cave, of the curriculum of education & testing administered to the kallipolis’ citizens (Keum, 2020)
the story of dreaming & waking that frames the Myth of Er, and which also structures the Myth of Metals & the Allegory of the Cave, suggests that there is much more continuity connecting the Republic and its final myth than readers tend to appreciate (Keum, 2020)
the myth puts forward a framework for thinking about individual nature as a working concept that warrants being treated as a fixed category, but whose content is subject to revision (Keum, 2020)
Plato’s investment in treating individual nature as a fixed constant, on the one hand, and in periodically updating the content of that concept, on the other hand, need not be mutually exclusive (Keum, 2020)
92
what is the Myth of the Metals (Book III)?
according to this myth all citizens were born out of the earth & are divided into three classes: rulers (gold), auxiliaries (silver) & producers (bronze)
- division is supposedly determined by the gods
93
what is the significance of the Myth of Metals?
this fiction persuades people to be patriotic - reason to swear loyalty to their city & their fellow citizens
rigid understanding of individual nature in the MoM gives it the gloss of radicalism for which the Republic is so often criticised (Popper, 1963), who found in this myth an “exact counterpart” of Nazi racial policy
- the MoM has since remained a primary point of reference in authoritarian or otherwise anti-democratic portraits of Plato
the myth reimagines what it means to be born - not when a citizen is biologically born, but sometime after she has completed the education in music & gymnastics (Republic. 414d)
- asleep during the years of their early education in music & gymnastics; they have spent these years, not in this world, but inside the womb of their mother, the earth, where both they and the distinctive markers of their occupational identities were formed
- only after this process of gestation were they released above ground, to wake into their current selves
the point of the myth is that what can be known about a citizen at the time of her biological birth is inadequate for determining her place in society
94
what is the Allegory of the Cave?
Plato imagines a group of people who have lived their entire lives as prisoners, chained to the wall of a cave in the subterranean so they are unable to see the outside world. However, a constant flame illuminates various moving objects outside, which are silhouetted on the wall of the cave visible to the prisoners. The prisoners, through having no other experience of reality, ascribe forms to these shadows
the philosophers are akin to a prisoner who is freed from the cave. The prisoner is initially blinded by the light, but when he adjusts to the brightness he sees the fire and the statues and how they caused the images witnessed inside the cave. This is analogous to the Forms. What we see from day to day are merely appearances, reflections of the Forms. The philosopher, however, will not be deceived by the shadows and will hence be able to see the 'real' world, the world above that of appearances; the philosopher will gain knowledge of things in themselves
it is the philosopher’s burden to re-enter the cave. Those who have seen the ideal world have the duty to educate those in the material world. Since the philosopher recognises what is truly good only he is fit to rule society according to Plato
95
what is the significance of the Allegory of the Cave?
the experience is likened to the process of opening one’s eyes to knowledge. A person informed by opinion but not knowledge may be said to be merely “taken in by dreams and slumbering out of his present life” (Republic. 515a)
it takes a wakeful mind to see past the illusions of the things people tend to believe, and Socrates tells us that the politics of the kallipolis must amount to rule “in a state of waking, not in a dream as the many cities nowadays are governed by men who fight over shadows with one another” (Republic. 520c–d)
Socrates designates the cave as an “image of our nature in its education and want of education” (Republic. 514a)
the philosophical attributes of the guardians are no more prefigured into their natures than the characters of the kallipolis’ citizens after their preliminary upbringing can be said to be biologically innate (Keum, 2020)
the working concept of a person’s nature consists in an unknown amalgam of some given predisposition and the influence of a dialectical education - where the predisposition in question is the combination of biological predisposition and early upbringing (Keum, 2020)
96
what is the Myth of Er?
hero-messenger, Er, is killed in battle but then comes back to life to tell the story of what he saw in the other realm, as though he’d merely slept through the ordeal & had “recovered his sight and saw that it was morning and he was lying on the pyre”
the journey from the afterworld back to the world of the living is an ascent, which Er travels with the souls sent to be reincarnated as they are carried “up to their birth” (Republic. 621b)
the souls in the myth face a choice concerning the lives into which they are to be reborn when they next open their eyes: the “ordering of the soul” changes as it makes its way through the life it chooses, and the choice accordingly entails “looking off toward the nature of the soul” (Republic. 618b–d)
97
what is the significance of the Myth of Er?
if the first half of the Myth of Er illustrates a kind of education, the second half, which depicts souls choosing the patterns of the lives into which they will be reborn, can be read as the illustration of a test
- what is being tested for is not whether individual souls have simply learned the lessons of their thousand-year journeys, but whether they possess natures that have properly internalised the effects of this education
MoE’s framing echoes the plot structure of the Myth of Metals and the Allegory of the Cave, both of which recount experiences that are described in terms of being delivered out of a subterranean place, during sleep, into a different world above and waking up there
98
how do the three myths echo each other?
MoE’s framing echoes the plot structure of the Myth of Metals and the Allegory of the Cave, both of which recount experiences that are described in terms of being delivered out of a subterranean place, during sleep, into a different world above and waking up there
these stories of dreaming & waking are, in each case, deployed to offer a redescription of the natures of its subjects following a transformative event (Keum, 2020)
99
why is the noble lie ironic?
for someone who claimed to value truth so highly, Plato has little trouble justifying wide-scale deception
the good of the state overrides all else, including the importance of truth
