Hormones

Question 1

Adrenaline (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 1

Secreted from: Adrenal medulla
Effect on target cells: Binds to adrenergic receptors, increases cAMP levels
Effect on body: Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to muscles; dilates airways; stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis
Hypo: Rare, generally not clinically significant
Hyper: Anxiety, palpitations, hypertension, headaches
Relevant condition: Pheochromocytoma - a tumor causing excess adrenaline production leading to hypertension, palpitations, and anxiety

Question 2

Aldosterone (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 2

Secreted from: Adrenal cortex (zona glomerulosa)
Effect on target cells: Binds to mineralocorticoid receptors in kidney distal tubules and collecting ducts
Effect on body: Increases sodium reabsorption, potassium excretion, and water retention; raises blood pressure
Hypo: Addison’s disease - hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, hypotension, fatigue
Hyper: Conn’s syndrome (primary hyperaldosteronism) - hypertension, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis
Relevant condition: Conn’s syndrome - excessive aldosterone production causing hypertension and hypokalemia

Question 3

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 3

Secreted from: Hypothalamus
Released from: Posterior pituitary gland
Effect on target cells: Binds to V2 receptors in kidney collecting ducts, increasing aquaporin-2 insertion
Effect on body: Increases water reabsorption, reduces urine volume, concentrates urine, maintains blood pressure
Hypo: Diabetes insipidus - polyuria, polydipsia, dehydration, hypernatremia
Hyper: Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH) - water retention, hyponatremia, cerebral edema
Relevant condition: Diabetes insipidus - insufficient ADH leading to excessive urination and thirst

Question 4

Calcitonin
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 4

Secreted from: Thyroid gland (parafollicular cells or C cells)
Effect on target cells: Inhibits osteoclast activity, decreases calcium resorption in kidneys
Effect on body: Lowers blood calcium levels, inhibits bone resorption
Hypo: Rare, generally not clinically significant
Hyper: Rare, may cause hypocalcemia
Relevant condition: Medullary thyroid carcinoma - cancer originating from C cells, which can secrete excessive calcitonin

Question 5

Cholecystokinin (CCK)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 5

Secreted from: Enteroendocrine cells in the small intestine (I cells)
Effect on target cells: Stimulates gallbladder contraction, pancreatic enzyme secretion, and relaxation of the sphincter of Oddi
Effect on body: Aids in digestion of fats and proteins by promoting bile and enzyme release
Hypo: Impaired fat digestion and absorption, steatorrhea
Hyper: Rare, may cause dyspepsia and gastrointestinal discomfort
Relevant condition: None typically associated

Question 6

Cortisol
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 6

Secreted from: Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata)
Effect on target cells: Binds to glucocorticoid receptors, modulates gene expression
Effect on body: Increases blood glucose, suppresses immune response, enhances metabolism, maintains blood pressure
Hypo: Addison’s disease - fatigue, weight loss, hypotension, hypoglycemia
Hyper: Cushing’s syndrome - central obesity, hypertension, hyperglycemia, muscle weakness
Relevant condition: Cushing’s syndrome - chronic excessive cortisol production or administration

Question 7

Erythropoietin (EPO)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 7

Secreted from: Kidneys (peritubular fibroblasts)
Effect on target cells: Stimulates erythropoiesis in bone marrow progenitor cells
Effect on body: Increases red blood cell production, enhances oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
Hypo: Anemia, fatigue, shortness of breath
Hyper: Polycythemia, increased blood viscosity, risk of thrombosis
Relevant condition: Anemia of chronic kidney disease - insufficient EPO production

Question 8

Estrogen
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 8

Secreted from: Ovaries (granulosa cells)
Effect on target cells: Binds to estrogen receptors, regulates gene expression
Effect on body: Regulates menstrual cycle, promotes secondary sexual characteristics, maintains bone density
Hypo: Menopause symptoms, osteoporosis, infertility
Hyper: Increased risk of breast and endometrial cancer, thromboembolic events
Relevant condition: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) - hormonal imbalance with elevated estrogen levels

Question 9

Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 9

Secreted from: Anterior pituitary gland
Effect on target cells: Stimulates growth of ovarian follicles in females, spermatogenesis in males
Effect on body: Essential for reproduction and development of gametes
Hypo: Infertility, amenorrhea, reduced spermatogenesis
Hyper: Ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, multiple births
Relevant condition: Hypogonadism - reduced function of gonads leading to low FSH levels

Question 10

Glucagon
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 10

Secreted from: Pancreas (alpha cells)
Effect on target cells: Stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver
Effect on body: Increases blood glucose levels, maintains glucose homeostasis
Hypo: Hypoglycemia, dizziness, confusion, seizures
Hyper: Hyperglycemia, weight loss, diarrhea
Relevant condition: Glucagonoma - rare pancreatic tumor causing excessive glucagon secretion

Question 11

Growth Hormone (GH)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 11

Secreted from: Anterior pituitary gland
Effect on target cells: Stimulates growth and cell reproduction, promotes protein synthesis and fat metabolism
Effect on body: Growth and development, increases muscle mass, reduces fat mass
Hypo: Dwarfism in children, muscle wasting in adults
Hyper: Acromegaly in adults, gigantism in children
Relevant condition: Acromegaly - excessive GH secretion leading to abnormal growth of hands, feet, and face

Question 12

Insulin
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 12

Secreted from: Pancreas (beta cells)
Effect on target cells: Promotes glucose uptake, glycogenesis, and lipogenesis
Effect on body: Lowers blood glucose levels, stores energy as glycogen and fat
Hypo: Diabetes mellitus - hyperglycemia, polyuria, polydipsia
Hyper: Hypoglycemia - shakiness, sweating, confusion, seizures
Relevant condition: Diabetes mellitus - impaired insulin production or action leading to chronic high blood sugar

Question 13

Leptin
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 13

Secreted from: Adipose tissue
Effect on target cells: Binds to leptin receptors in hypothalamus, regulates appetite and energy balance
Effect on body: Reduces hunger, increases energy expenditure
Hypo: Obesity, overeating, decreased energy expenditure
Hyper: Leptin resistance, obesity
Relevant condition: Obesity - leptin resistance or deficiency leading to impaired appetite regulation

Question 14

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 14

Secreted from: Anterior pituitary gland
Effect on target cells: Triggers ovulation in females, stimulates testosterone production in males
Effect on body: Essential for reproduction, regulates menstrual cycle in females, promotes spermatogenesis in males
Hypo: Infertility, amenorrhea, low testosterone
Hyper: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) - menstrual irregularities, infertility
Relevant condition: Hypogonadism - reduced function of gonads leading to low LH levels

Question 15

Melatonin
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 15

Secreted from: Pineal gland
Effect on target cells: Binds to melatonin receptors in the brain
Effect on body: Regulates sleep-wake cycles, promotes sleep
Hypo: Insomnia, sleep disorders
Hyper: Daytime sleepiness, disrupted sleep patterns
Relevant condition: Sleep disorders - such as insomnia due to melatonin deficiency or irregular production

Question 16

Oxytocin
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 16

Secreted from: Hypothalamus
Released from: Posterior pituitary gland
Effect on target cells: Stimulates uterine contractions, milk ejection in breastfeeding
Effect on body: Facilitates childbirth, promotes lactation, bonding behaviors
Hypo: Delayed labor, insufficient milk ejection
Hyper: Uterine hyperstimulation, water retention
Relevant condition: Postpartum hemorrhage - managed with oxytocin to stimulate uterine contractions

Question 17

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 17

Secreted from: Parathyroid glands
Effect on target cells: Increases osteoclast activity, enhances calcium reabsorption in kidneys, activates vitamin D
Effect on body: Raises blood calcium levels
Hypo: Hypoparathyroidism - hypocalcemia, tetany, muscle cramps
Hyper: Hyperparathyroidism - hypercalcemia, kidney stones, osteoporosis
Relevant condition: Hyperparathyroidism - excessive PTH leading to high blood calcium and bone loss

Question 18

Progesterone
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 18

Secreted from: Ovaries (corpus luteum)
Effect on target cells: Prepares endometrium for implantation, maintains pregnancy
Effect on body: Regulates menstrual cycle, supports pregnancy
Hypo: Irregular menstrual cycles, infertility, miscarriage
Hyper: Progesterone resistance, endometrial hyperplasia
Relevant condition: Luteal phase defect - insufficient progesterone production leading to infertility or recurrent pregnancy loss

Question 19

Prolactin
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 19

Secreted from: Anterior pituitary gland
Effect on target cells: Stimulates milk production in mammary glands
Effect on body: Promotes lactation
Hypo: Poor lactation, insufficient milk supply
Hyper: Hyperprolactinemia - galactorrhea, menstrual irregularities, infertility
Relevant condition: Hyperprolactinemia - excessive prolactin production causing menstrual irregularities and infertility

Question 20

Testosterone
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 20

Secreted from: Testes (Leydig cells)
Effect on target cells: Promotes development of male secondary sexual characteristics, spermatogenesis
Effect on body: Increases muscle mass, bone density, libido, red blood cell production
Hypo: Hypogonadism - decreased muscle mass, low libido, infertility
Hyper: Androgenic effects - increased aggression, acne, male pattern baldness
Relevant condition: Hypogonadism - reduced testosterone production causing decreased secondary sexual characteristics

Question 21

Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 21

Secreted from: Thyroid gland
Effect on target cells: Regulates metabolism, increases basal metabolic rate
Effect on body: Increases energy production, protein synthesis, and growth
Hypo: Hypothyroidism - fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance
Hyper: Hyperthyroidism - weight loss, heat intolerance, anxiety
Relevant condition: Hypothyroidism - insufficient thyroid hormone production leading to metabolic slowing

Question 22

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 22

Secreted from: Anterior pituitary gland
Effect on target cells: Stimulates thyroid hormone production and release from the thyroid gland
Effect on body: Regulates thyroid gland activity
Hypo: Hypothyroidism - fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance
Hyper: Hyperthyroidism - weight loss, heat intolerance, anxiety
Relevant condition: Hypothyroidism - elevated TSH due to feedback from low thyroid hormone levels

Question 23

Vitamin D (Calcitriol)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 23

Secreted from: Kidneys (conversion from precursors in skin and liver)
Effect on target cells: Increases calcium and phosphate absorption in the intestines
Effect on body: Maintains bone health, regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism
Hypo: Rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults
Hyper: Hypercalcemia - nausea, vomiting, weakness
Relevant condition: Rickets - softening of bones in children due to vitamin D deficiency

Question 24

Insulin-like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1)
(Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 24

Secreted from: Liver (stimulated by growth hormone)
Effect on target cells: Promotes cell growth and development, protein synthesis
Effect on body: Mediates effects of growth hormone, supports growth and development
Hypo: Growth retardation, short stature
Hyper: Acromegaly, gigantism
Relevant condition: Laron syndrome - insensitivity to growth hormone causing dwarfism

Question 25

Ghrelin (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 25

Secreted from: Stomach (gastric cells) Effect on target cells: Stimulates appetite by binding to receptors in the hypothalamus Effect on body: Increases hunger, promotes food intake Hypo: Decreased appetite, weight loss Hyper: Increased appetite, obesity Relevant condition: Prader-Willi syndrome - genetic disorder with elevated ghrelin levels leading to hyperphagia and obesity

Question 26

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 26

Secreted from: Anterior pituitary gland Effect on target cells: Stimulates cortisol production and release from the adrenal cortex Effect on body: Regulates stress response, metabolism, and immune function Hypo: Secondary adrenal insufficiency - fatigue, hypotension, hypoglycemia Hyper: Cushing's disease - central obesity, hypertension, hyperglycemia Relevant condition: Cushing's disease - pituitary adenoma causing excessive ACTH secretion

Question 27

Somatostatin (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 27

Secreted from: Pancreas (delta cells) and hypothalamus Effect on target cells: Inhibits release of growth hormone, insulin, and glucagon Effect on body: Regulates hormone secretion, slows gastric emptying Hypo: Rare, generally not clinically significant Hyper: Inhibition of insulin and glucagon release, hyperglycemia Relevant condition: Somatostatinoma - rare tumor causing excessive somatostatin production

Question 28

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 28

Secreted from: Heart (atrial myocytes) Effect on target cells: Promotes sodium and water excretion in kidneys, vasodilation Effect on body: Reduces blood volume and blood pressure Hypo: Hypertension, fluid retention Hyper: Hypotension, dehydration Relevant condition: Heart failure - elevated ANP levels as a compensatory response to fluid overload

Question 29

Gastrin (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 29

Secreted from: Stomach (G cells) Effect on target cells: Stimulates acid secretion from parietal cells in the stomach Effect on body: Increases gastric acidity, aids in digestion Hypo: Hypochlorhydria, impaired digestion Hyper: Zollinger-Ellison syndrome - peptic ulcers, gastric hypersecretion Relevant condition: Zollinger-Ellison syndrome - gastrin-secreting tumors leading to excessive gastric acid production

Question 30

Secretin (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 30

Secreted from: Small intestine (S cells) Effect on target cells: Stimulates bicarbonate secretion from pancreas, inhibits gastric acid secretion Effect on body: Neutralizes stomach acid in the small intestine, facilitates digestion Hypo: Duodenal ulcers, impaired digestion Hyper: Rare, generally not clinically significant Relevant condition: None typically associated

Question 31

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone (CRH) (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 31

Secreted from: Hypothalamus Effect on target cells: Stimulates ACTH release from the anterior pituitary gland Effect on body: Activates adrenal cortex to produce cortisol, regulates stress response Hypo: Secondary adrenal insufficiency - fatigue, hypotension, hypoglycemia Hyper: Cushing's disease - central obesity, hypertension, hyperglycemia Relevant condition: Cushing's disease - excessive CRH leading to elevated ACTH and cortisol levels

Question 32

Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 32

Secreted from: Hypothalamus Effect on target cells: Stimulates FSH and LH release from the anterior pituitary gland Effect on body: Regulates reproductive function, stimulates gonadal hormone production Hypo: Hypogonadism - infertility, amenorrhea, reduced secondary sexual characteristics Hyper: Precocious puberty, overstimulation of gonads Relevant condition: Hypogonadism - reduced function of gonads due to insufficient GnRH

Question 33

Prostaglandins (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 33

Secreted from: Various tissues (local synthesis) Effect on target cells: Modulates inflammation, pain, and fever responses Effect on body: Increases inflammation, pain sensitivity, and fever; regulates smooth muscle function Hypo: Reduced inflammatory response, impaired healing Hyper: Chronic inflammation, pain, fever Relevant condition: Inflammatory diseases - such as rheumatoid arthritis with elevated prostaglandin levels

Question 34

Thymosin (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 34

Secreted from: Thymus Effect on target cells: Promotes T-cell differentiation and maturation Effect on body: Essential for adaptive immune response Hypo: Immunodeficiency, increased susceptibility to infections Hyper: Rare, generally not clinically significant Relevant condition: DiGeorge syndrome - thymic hypoplasia leading to T-cell deficiency

Question 35

Histamine (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 35

Secreted from: Mast cells and basophils Effect on target cells: Binds to histamine receptors, mediates inflammatory and allergic responses Effect on body: Increases vascular permeability, bronchoconstriction, stimulates gastric acid secretion Hypo: Reduced allergic and inflammatory response Hyper: Allergic reactions, anaphylaxis, gastric hypersecretion Relevant condition: Allergic rhinitis - excessive histamine release causing sneezing, itching, and nasal congestion

Question 36

Angiotensin II (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 36

Secreted from: Converted from angiotensin I in the blood (by ACE) Effect on target cells: Binds to AT1 receptors, causing vasoconstriction, aldosterone release Effect on body: Increases blood pressure, stimulates sodium retention Hypo: Hypotension, dehydration Hyper: Hypertension, fluid retention Relevant condition: Hypertension - due to excessive angiotensin II activity

Question 37

Renin (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 37

Secreted from: Kidneys (juxtaglomerular cells) Effect on target cells: Converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I Effect on body: Initiates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), regulates blood pressure Hypo: Hypotension, dehydration Hyper: Hypertension, fluid retention Relevant condition: Renal artery stenosis - increased renin release due to reduced kidney perfusion

Question 38

Leukotrienes (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 38

Secreted from: Various cells (local synthesis, particularly leukocytes) Effect on target cells: Mediates inflammation, bronchoconstriction, and vascular permeability Effect on body: Promotes inflammatory response, asthma symptoms Hypo: Reduced inflammatory response, impaired healing Hyper: Chronic inflammation, asthma exacerbations Relevant condition: Asthma - leukotriene-mediated bronchoconstriction and inflammation

Question 39

Endorphins (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 39

Secreted from: Pituitary gland and hypothalamus Effect on target cells: Binds to opioid receptors, reduces pain perception Effect on body: Analgesia, euphoria, stress reduction Hypo: Increased pain sensitivity, depression Hyper: Euphoria, potential for addiction Relevant condition: Chronic pain - endorphin deficiency leading to increased pain perception

Question 40

Cholecalciferol (Vitamin D3) (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 40

Secreted from: Skin (conversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol via UVB radiation) Effect on target cells: Increases calcium and phosphate absorption in the intestines Effect on body: Maintains bone health, regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism Hypo: Rickets in children, osteomalacia in adults Hyper: Hypercalcemia - nausea, vomiting, weakness Relevant condition: Rickets - softening of bones in children due to vitamin D deficiency

Question 41

Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone (TRH) (Secreted/released from, Cell effect, Systemic effect, Hypo, Hyper, Relevant Condition)

Answer 41

Secreted from: Hypothalamus Cell effect: Stimulates thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) release from the anterior pituitary gland Systemic effect: Regulates thyroid hormone production, influences metabolism and growth Hypo: Potential thyroid dysfunction, metabolic changes Hyper: Rare, may affect thyroid function tests and metabolic processes Relevant Condition: Hypothyroidism, thyroid disorders