How successfully did Britain deal with the problems of decolonisation and the changing nature of the Commonwealth?

Question 1

Problems Britain faced 1951 in its imperial policy

Answer 1

• UN Charter required Britain to grant independence to its colonies, but they wanted its economic resources to help economic recovery after WW2.
• Granting ‘premature independence’ was thought to make colonies vulnerable to communist take-over.
• Feared colonies, such as Cyprus and Malaya, would descend into civil war if independent.
• After Suez Crisis anti-British colonial nationalism developed rapidly as they’d failed to assert their dominance over Egypt.
• Forces to suppress anti-colonial nationalism were expensive and violent confrontations made bad headlines and provided material for anti-colonial propaganda of USSR and China.

Question 2

Impact of WW2 in independence of colonies?

Answer 2

• Humiliating surrender of Singapore to Japan 1942 and rapid collapse of French and Dutch empires in Far East showed that European rule wasn’t invincible.
• During the war British colonial administrators exploited resources of Empire more effectively because food and raw materials were in short supply in Britain. For example, in Kenya, farmers resented having to sell crops to govt at a fixed rate.
• Colonies unable to buy manufactures goods from Britain and often prevented from buying them from elsewhere.
• Indian and Pakistani independence 1947.

Question 3

Britain’s economic weakness for colonies independence

Answer 3

• 1948 govt set up Colonial Development Corporation and projects like the East African Groundnut Scheme were established. These increased resentment in colonies.
• Economic weakness meant Britain could no longer supply colonies with investment capital and manufactured goods they needed.

Question 4

Growth of colonial nationalism for independence

Answer 4

• In USA, African Americans protested against systematic discrimination that made them second-class citizens.
• 1955 representatives from 25 newly independent Third World nations met in Indonesia to create the non-aligned movement and denounce European imperialism.
• On his tour of Africa 1960, Macmillan told South African parliament that “the wind of change is blowing through this continent… this growth of national consciousness is a political fact”.
• In Gold Coast, now Ghana, Convention’s People Party organised campaign for independence and in Tanganyika Tanganyika African National Union insisted that govt of country must be African.
• 1952 virtual civil war in Kenya between those who benefited from colonial rule and those who thought it should be resisted, resulting in 14,000 deaths and not suppressed until 1956.

Question 5

Impact of Cold War for independence of colonies

Answer 5

• Late 1940s and early 50s Americans encouraged Britain to keep colonial empire, especially in Africa, as believed newly independent nations would be too weak to resist communist influence.
• As Britain struggled to control anti-colonial protest in Egypt and Cyprus, both USA and USSR produced anti-colonial propaganda to win support in Africa and Asia.
• UN growing in size meant increasingly became a forum for non-white nations to critise European empires.

Question 6

How successful were British colonial policies?

Answer 6

• Britain hoped that if they initiated political reforms in colonies, they could remain in Commonwealth and British economic sphere, known as sterling area, when independent.
• However, usually handed power to nationalist leaders they’d previously imorisoned as terrorists, such as Nkrumah in Ghana and Kenyatta in Kenya.
• 1953 Central African Federation (CAF) created, bringing together Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia. However, July 1964 Nyasaland became independent Malawi and Oct 1964 Northern Rhodesia became Zambia.
• Similar policy for West Indies 1958 and Arabian Peninsula 1963. All were short-lived because made political divisions worse.

Question 7

Malaya

Answer 7

• Malayan territories important source of tin and rubber and Singapore port strategically important.
• Pop approx 45% Chinese, 40% Malay and 15% Indian.
• 1948 Malayan Chinese communists began insurrection against British rule until 1960. Involved 40,000 British and Commonwealth troops and was eventually successful as Malay community was largely Muslim and didn’t like atheist communism of Chinese.
• Independence Aug 1957 to govt headed by conservative Malays.

Question 8

Ghana

Answer 8

• 1948 Britain created an elected parliament in response to the riots in capital Accra.
• Radical nationalist leader Nkrumah won 1951 elections. He agreed to keep Ghana in the Commonwealth and sterling area and to accept a federal constitution which devolved some power to ethnically diverse regions of the country.
• Ghana independent March 1957.
• Nkrumah overthrown in military coup 1966 due to socialist policies, support for black liberation elsewhere in Africa, and authoritarian rule.

Question 9

Nigeria

Answer 9

• Had major regional differences: north was Muslim, south was Christian and more westernised and was further split into Ibo in the east and Yoruba in the west.
• Britian handed power to coalition representing north and Ibo, becoming independent Oct 1960.
• 1967-70 civil war between ethnic differences.

Question 10

Kenya

Answer 10

• Divided between Asian community who held commercial life, white settlers who farmed most productive land, and three indigenous black national groups: Kikuyu, Masai and Luo.
• 1952 Kikuyu began guerrilla campaign known as Mau Mau uprising against white settlers for farmland.
• Britain suppressed this for 4 years, but Macmillan realised demand for independence was too strong to be resisted so Dec 1963 Kenya became independent.
• Similarly to Nigeria and Ghana, racial divisions left from British hasty withdrawal.

Question 11

Cyprus

Answer 11

• April 1955 Greek Cypriots began terror campaign to expel British and unite island with Greece. Tied down 25,000 British troops in campaign.
• Cyprus important military base for Britain in eastern Mediterranean.
• 20% Cypriot pop Turkish and opposed to union with Greece.
• 1960 Macmillan managed to persuade two communities to accept independence under Greek president and Turkish vice-president.
• Turkish invasion of island 1974 led to partition of island.

Question 12

Rhodesa

Answer 12

• Southern Rhodesia 200,000 whites monopolised power over 3 mil blacks. Nov 1965 white minority govt declared colony independent of Britain.
• Britain divided over issue: left wanted Rhodesian regime crushed and right regarded Rhodesian whites as ‘kith and kin’ as most had emigrated from Britain, recalling that most had fought for Britain in WW2.
• Wilson ruled out use of force, hoping that trade sanctions would strangle economy, but this had little impact.
• Wilson tried to reach a settlement with Ian Smith, Rhodesian leader, but failed as he refused majority rule.
• Eventually independent as Zimbabwe 1980 due to pressure from South Africans and USA

Question 13

Changing commonwealth?
White-ruled nations

Answer 13

• White-ruled nations of South Africa, Canada, Australia and New Zealand had been granted complete legislative independence 1931 but retained economic and strategic ties to Britain

Question 14

Joining commonwealth?

Answer 14

• India, Pakistan and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) joined Commonwealth as republics, recognising British monarch only as head of Commonweath, not head of state.
• 1995 Mozambique and Cameroon joined as first members with no historic ties to Britain

Question 15

Korean war:

Answer 15

Commonwealth troops

Question 16

Suez Crisis

Answer 16

1956 Suez Crisis threatened Commonwealth as Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand supported Britain but India and Pakistan sympathised with Egypt.

Question 17

Asia and Africa

Answer 17

Rapid dismantling of British colonial empire in Asia and Africa 1957-64 changed nature of Commonwealth as newly independent nations joined.

1961 South Africa left Commonwealth rather than face criticism of apartheid. 1970s and 80s Britain criticised for economic ties with South Africa, especially sale of armaments, and Thatcher was alone in not imposing economic sanctions on apartheid regime.

Question 18

Racism

Answer 18

• 1962 Commonwealth Immigration Act particularly resented by black nations.
• 1971 Singapore Declaration condemned racial prejudice, emphasised members’ commitment to democratic values, international peace, equal rights and freedom of individual. These principles codified in Commonwealth Charter 2012. Nigeria’s membership suspended 1995-99 for violating them.

Question 19

Commonwealth:

Answer 19

• Commonwealth unity threatened by Britain’s handling of Rhodesia. - Britain sacrificed preferential trade links with Commonwealth by joining European Community 1973. - Nelson Mandela’s govt in SA re-joined Commonwealth within a month of being elected 1994. - 1995 Mozambique and Cameroon joined as first members with no historic ties to Britain. - 1971 Singapore Declaration condemned racial prejudice, emphasised members’ commitment to democratic values, international peace, equal rights and freedom of individual. These principles codified in Commonwealth Charter 2012. Nigeria’s membership suspended 1995-99 for violating them. - A factor of the Commonwealth’s continued survival was Queen Elizabeth II as she was highly regarded by its members since 1952.