HUB Paper 1 Flashcards
(125 cards)
1
Q
Chiasmata
A
Point where chromosomes are joined together in prophase 1
2
Q
Independent Assortment
A
Random aligning of chromosomes in Metaphase
3
Q
Spermatogonia
A
Dormant germ cells divide by mitosis to produce spermatogonia.
4
Q
Primary Spermatocyte
A
Spermatogonia in Prophase I
5
Q
Spermatids
A
Results of meiosis of primary spermatocytes
6
Q
Acrosomal cap
A
Hydrolytic enzymes in head of sperm
7
Q
Oogonia
A
Result of mitotic division of dormant germ cells in ovary
8
Q
Primordial follicle
A
Oocyte surrounded by single layer of flattened cells (pauses in Prophase I)
9
Q
Primary follicle
A
When follicle cells around primordial follicle plump up
10
Q
Zona Pelucida
A
Glycoprotein layer around primary follicle
11
Q
Antrum
A
Fluid filled cavity in a Graafian follicle
12
Q
Ovulation
A
Follicle wall thins, ruptures, and oocyte slowly descends into the Fallopian tube
13
Q
Corpus Luteum
A
Remaining ovarian follicle wall that is connected to ovary wall after ovulation
14
Q
Sperm capacitation
A
Cholesterol from semen removed from aperm head, making it more permeable to calcium and increasing motility and facilitates release of enzymes from acrosomal cap
15
Q
Integrins
A
Membrane proteins on oocyte that mediate attachment and penetration of sperm to oocyte plasma membrane
16
Q
Fertlins and Cyritestins
A
Membrane proteins on sperm that mediate attachment and penetration of sperm to oocyte plasma membrane
17
Q
Polyspermy
A
When more than 1 sperm enter the oocyte
18
Q
Zygote
A
When pronuclei from egg and sperm in embryo fuse
19
Q
Holoblastic cleavage
A
Complete cleavage
20
Q
Meroblastic cleavage
A
Incomplete cleavage (too much yolk)
21
Q
Blastocyst
A
After morula stage, has distinct ICM and TB
22
Q
Morula
A
When blastomeres start to compact at 8-cell stage
23
Q
Inner Cell Mass (ICM)
A
small group of cells on inside of blastocyst - gives rise to embryo
24
Q
Trophoblast (TB)
A
Large group of external cells of blastocyst - gives rise to extra-embryonic tissue
25
Totipotent
Can give rise to anything
26
Pluripotent
Can give rise to lots but not all
27
Multipotent
Can give rise to a bunch, but less than pluripotent (blastocyst)
28
Monozygotic twins
2-cell embryo divides forming 2 embryos
29
Conjoined twins
When ICM doesn't completely divide in monozygotic twins
30
Hatching
Embryo sheds Zona Pelucida in uterus to prepare for implantation
31
Implantation
Attachment of embryo to endometrium
32
Epiblast
Epithelial layer of ICM - becomes embryo and amnion
33
Hypoblast
Epithelial layer of ICM - gives rise to primary yolk sac
34
Extraembryonic Mesoderm (EM)
Populates space below TB
35
Gastrulation
Formation of 3 primary germ layers
36
Epiboly
Specialised form of gastrulation in organisms with ball-shaped embryo
37
Ectoderm
Outer germ layer
38
Mesoderm
Middle germ layer (connective tissue )
39
Endoderm
Inner germ layer (GIT)
40
Neural Induction
Formation of neural plate from thickening columnar cells above the notochord
41
Neurulation
Formation of neural tube from neural plate
42
Neural crest
Tips of neural groove
43
Eukaryotes
Nucleus, membrane-bound organelles
44
Prokaryotes
No nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles
45
Microvilli
Tiny finger-like projections of cell membrane containing microfilaments
46
Cilia
Hair-like structures on surface of cell containing microtubules
47
Flagella
Similar in structure to cilia but much longer
48
Cytoplasm
Area between plasma membrane and nuclear membrane
49
Microfilaments
- Smallest filament of cytoskeleton
| - Actin & Myosin
50
Intermediate filaments
Exceptionaly strong filaments of cytoskeleton
51
Microtubules
- Largest filament of cytoskeleton
| - Tubulin
52
Centrioles
9 bundles of 3x microtubules
53
Centrosome
2 centrioles at right angles to each other
54
Vacuole
Membrane-bound sacs
| - Storage, digestion, waste removal
55
Ribosomes
Free or fixed (to ER), produce proteins
56
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Network of intracellular membranes connected to nuclear membrane
Smooth: no ribosomes
- synthesis of lipids carbs & steroids
Rough: ribosomes
- synthesis of proteins
57
Proteosome
Barrel-shaped structures containing protein-digesting enzymes
58
Golgi Apparatus
Stacks of membranous discs
- Modify/package proteins & lipids for transport
- Renew or modify plasma membrane
59
Lysosomes
Destroys damaged organelles or pathogens with digestive enzymes
60
Peroxisomes
Small, spherical membrane-bound organelle
| - Oxidises organic substances and toxic substances
61
Mitochondria
Energy production and calcium storage
62
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
63
Amine hormones
- Catecholamines
- Thyroid hormones
- Melatonin
64
Peptide Hormones
- Calcitonin
- Parathyroid hormones
- Adrenocorticotropic hormone
- Prolactin
- ADH
- Oxytocin
65
Protein Hormones
- GH
- Insulin
- Glucagon
66
Glycoprotien hormones
- TSH
- FSH
- LH
67
Steroids
- Aldosterone
- Cortisol
- Testosterone
- Estrogens & Progesterones
68
Downregulation
High concentrations of hormone triggers decrease in hormone receptors number on target cell/cell becomes less sensitive to hormones in blood
69
Upregulation
Low concentration of hormone triggers increase in hormone receptors number on target cell/cell becomes more sensitive to hormones in blood
70
Permissive effect
1 hormone cannot fully exert its effect without presence of second hormone
71
Synergistic effect
2 or more hormones have similar effects -> amplified response
72
Antagonistic effect
2 hormones with opposing effects
73
Hormonal stimulus regulation of hormone secretion
Endocrine gland secretes hormone in response to presence of another hormone
74
Humoral stimulus regulation of hormone secretion
Regulation of hormone secretion by changes in extracellular fluids
75
Somatomedins
Type of GH - Insulin-like Growth factors
76
Difference between T3 & T4
T4 (Thyroxine) - 4 iodine molecules
| T3 - 3 iodine molecules
77
Thyroglobulin
Large glycoprotein produced by thyroid follicle cells
78
Hypothyroidism
Lack to TH -> overproduction of TSH and build up of thyroglobulin in colloid = goiter
79
Hyperthyroidism
Too much TH
80
Glucagon
Stimulated by NE and epinephrine - increases plasma glucose levels
81
Insulin
Stimulated by hyperglaecemia, GIT hormones - decreases plasma glucose levels
82
Cortisol
- Glucocorticoid from adrenal cortex
- Controls metabolism of fats and proteins and organic substances
- increases vasoconstriction caused by epinephrine
83
Catecholamines
- From adrenal medulla
- Increase rate/force of heart contraction, blood pressure & respiration
- increase glycogenolysis and lipolysis
84
Increasing intensity of exercise
- Insulin decreases
| - Epinephrine, NE, Cortisol, GH, Glucagon all increase
85
Characteristics of Epithelial tissue
1. Cellularity
2. Polarity
3. Attachment
4. Regeneration
5. Junctions
6. Avascularity
86
Intercellular connections
- Occluding (tight) junction
- Adherens Junction
- Desmosomes
- Gap junctions
87
Merocrine secretion
Secretion through exocytosis from secretory vesicles - cell isn't damaged
88
Eccrine secretion
Merocrine secretion from sweat glands
89
Apocrine Secretion
Parts of plasma membrane bud off into extracellular vesicles
90
Holocrine Secretion
Cell membrane ruptures and cell is destroyed as secretion is released into lumen
91
Characteristics of Muscle Tissue
- Contractibility
- Extensibility
- Elasticity
- Excitability
92
Structural classifications of Neurons
- Anaxonic
- Unipolar
- Bipolar
- Multipolar
93
types of Neuroglia
in PNS:
- Schwann cells
- Satellite cells
in CNS:
- Oligodendrocytes
- Astrocytes
- Microglia
- Ependymal cells
94
White matter vs grey matter
White - myelinated axons
| grey - Cell bodies and dendrites
95
Endoneurium
Membrane surrounding individual axons and their Schwann cells
96
Perineurium
Membrane surrounding groups of axons to form fascicles
97
Epineurium
Outer sheath/membrane surrounding individual fascicles into nerve
98
Cell types of connective tissue
1. Fibroblast
2. Mast cell
3. Macrophages
4. Plasma cells
99
Collagen fibers
Long, straight, strong
100
Reticular fibers
Branching, interwoven network forming a loose mesh for cells to sit in
101
Elastic fibers
Branching, wavy network
102
Extracellular matrix
Composed of fibres and ground substance
103
Glycocalyx
Coating around the cell formed from glycoproteins and other carbs attached to cell membrane
104
Endocytosis
When a particle is taken into a cell
105
Phagocytosis
Endocytosis of macrophages
106
Pinocytosis
Endocytosis of small molecules
107
Exocytosis
particle excreted from the cell
108
Uniporter
Membrane transporter that moves in a single direction (down conc. gradient)
109
Symporter
Co-transporter with 2 mols moving in same direction with 1 going against their gradient, the other going with it
110
Antiporter
Co-transporter with 2 mols moving in posit directions, 1 with their gradient, the other without
111
What is an action potential?
Signalling mechanism of the nervous system
112
Absolute refractory period
No way to stimulate another action potential - all Na channels are still open and resting period hasn't been reestablished
113
Relative refractory period
Na channels are completely closed - won't get full response to action potential
114
Somatic Nervous system
Things you are aware of
115
Autonomic Nervous system
Involuntary control of the body
116
Sympapthetic Nervous system
Part of autonomic - fight or flight response
117
Parasympathetic Nervous system
Part of autonomic - Rest & digestion
118
Enteric Nervous system
Acts independent of brain - digestive system
119
Alpha-receptors
- Bind to Catecholamines (EP & NEP)
- Mediate vasoconstriction
- Mediate piloerection
- Mediate GI sphincter contraction
- Ca2+ is second messenger
120
Beta-1 Receptors
- Bind to Catecholamines (EP & NEP)
- Increase rate and contractibility of heart & lipolysis
- cAMP is the second messenger
121
Beta-2 Receptors
- Bind to Catecholamines (EP & NEP)
- Cause vasodilation and increase glycogenolysis in skeletal muscles
- cAMP is the second messenger
122
Beta-3 Receptors
- Bind to Catecholamines (EP & NEP)
- Located mainly in adipose tissue
- Involved in regulation of lipolysis ( at higher concentrations)
- Involved in regulation of thermogenesis
123
GLUT-2 Transporter
- High Km allows glucose to equilibrate across the membrane
| - Its uptake of glucose stimulates insulin secretion from B-cells of pancreas
124
GLUT-3 Transporter
- Low Km allows relatively constant rate of glucose uptake, independent of blood [glucose]
- involved in glucose uptake of the brain
125
GLUT-4 Transporter
- Insulin sensitive glucose transporter
