HUB Paper 2 Flashcards
(134 cards)
1
Q
Blood Types
A
- O: Universal Donor
- A: N-acetylglucosamine at antigen terminus
- B: Galactose at antigen terminus
- AB: Universal Recipient
2
Q
Agglutination
A
Blood clumping resulting from when antibodies attack foreign antigens
3
Q
Types of anti-bodies on Blood Types
A
- Type A: anti-B antibodies
- Type B: anti-A antibodies
- Type AB: No antibodies
- Type O: Anti-A & B antibodies
4
Q
Paratope
A
‘Lock’ of the antibody that fits into the epitope of the antigen
5
Q
Epitope
A
‘Key’ of the antigen that the paratope of the antibodies fits into
6
Q
Rh antigen
A
- Homozygous recessive (only rr will have Rh- Phenotype expressed)
7
Q
Fluid compartments of the body
A
Total Fluid Volume:
1. Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = 2/3 TFV
- Extracellular Fluid (ECF) 1/3 TFV
o Interstitial Fluid (3/4 ECF)
o Plasma (1/4 ECF)
o Transcellular Fluid
8
Q
Measurement of Intracellular fluid Volume (ICFV)
A
TBW-ECF
9
Q
Measurement of Interstitial fluid Volume (ISFV)
A
ECF-PV
10
Q
Properties of a good tracer
A
- Non toxic
- Doesn’t enter any other compartment
- Not metabolised
- Easy to measure
- Amount excreted is easy to determine
11
Q
Tracers for Total Body Water
A
- D2O
- Tritiated water
12
Q
Tracers for ECF
A
- Manitol
- Sulfate
- Sucrose
13
Q
Tracers for PV
A
- Evans Blue
- Radiolabeled Albumin
14
Q
Osmolality
A
Number of dissolved particles in a solution
Osmoles/kg H2O (Osmole = number of particles irresptive of type charge or size)
15
Q
Osmosis
A
- Movement of water down a concentration gradient from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration (tries to dilute solute)
16
Q
Hematopoiesis
A
Blood cells production
17
Q
Erythropoiesis
A
Formation of red blood cells
18
Q
Supine
A
Standard anatomical position of the body (spine on table looking up)
19
Q
Crania
A
Skull
20
Q
Postcranial
A
Below the skull
21
Q
Types of motion
A
o Extension/Flexion
o Abduction/Adduction (snow angel vibes)
o Pronation (rotate hand so nails face ceiling)/Supination
o Rotation
22
Q
Planes of reference
A
o Sagital (split body left to right)
o Coronal (Split body front and back)
o Transverse (Body in upper and lower parts)
23
Q
Proximal
A
Close to midline
24
Q
Distal
A
Away from midline
25
Anterior
Front
26
Posterior
Back
27
Superior
Above
28
Inferior
Below
29
Medial
Towards midline
30
Lateral
Away from midline
31
Types of joints
- Fibrous Joints
- Cartilaginous Joints
- Synovial Joints
32
6 Types of Synovial Joints
1. Plane/Gliding (foot arch & wrist)
2. Hinge (Knee, ulna & humerus)
3. Ball and Socket (Shoulder girdle, hip)
4. Saddle (Base of thumb, move in 2 directions)
5. Pivot
6. Ellipsoid
33
Long Bone structure
- Diaphysis
- Epiphysis
- Metaphysis
34
Diaphysis
Shaft of long bone
Compact bone
Medullary cavity in the middle
35
Epiphysis
Wide part at each end of long bone
Mostly cancellous/trabecular bone
Covered with compact bone (Cortex)
36
Metaphysis
Growth plate where epiphysis and diaphysis meet
37
2 Types of bone
1. Woven bone ("quick fix")
| 2. Lamellar bone
38
Canaliculi
Tiny channels for distribution of nutrients and removal of waste between lacuna in osteons
39
Trabeculae
Open network formed from the matrix in spongy bone
40
Periosteum
Membrane on the outside of the bone
41
Endosteum
Membrane on the inside of the bone, lines the medullary cavity
42
Bone cells
- Osteoprogenitor cells
- Osteoblasts
- Osteocytes
- Osteoclasts
43
Osteoprogenitor cells
Mesenchymal cells that divide to produce osteoblasts
44
Osteoblasts
Immature bone cells that secrete matrix compounds (Osteoid) during osteogenesis
45
Osteocytes
Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix
46
Osteoclasts
Giant multinucleate cells that dissolve bone matrix
47
5 Phases of bone remodelling
1. Activation
2. Resorption
3. Reversal
4. Formation
5. Quiescence
48
Appositional Growth
Growth in width through an increase in circumferential lamellae
49
Order and number of vertebrae
- (C) Cervical (7)
- (T) Thorax (12)
- (L) Lumbar (5)
- (S) Sacral (fused 5)
50
Upper limb structure
- Shoulder girdle – clavicle and scapula
- Upper arm – humerus
- Lower arm – ulna and radius
- Wrist – carpals
- Hand – metacarpals
- Fingers – phalanges
51
Lower limb Structure
- Pelvis – Os coxae
o Ischium
o Pubis
o Ilium
- Thigh – Femur
- Knee cap – Patella
- Lower leg – Tibia
- Lower leg – Fibula
- Ankle bones – tarsals
- Foot – metatarsals
- Toes – phalanges
52
6 Sphincters in the GIT
1. Upper esophageal sphincter (mouth to esophagus)
2. Lower esophageal sphincter (esophagus to stomach)
3. Pyloric sphincter (stomach to Duodenum)
4. Ileocecal sphincter (Small intestine to colon)
5. Internal and external Anal sphincters
6. Sphincters of Oddi:
53
4 Layers of the GIT
1. Mucosa:
o Epithelilum
o Lamina Propria
o Muscular mucosal
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis
4. Adventitia/Serosa
54
5 functions of Digestive System
1. Ingestion
2. Secretion
3. Digestion
4. Absorption
5. Storage & Elimination
55
Omentum
Double layered extension or fold of peritoneum that passes from stomach to proximal part of duodenum
56
Peritoneum
COntinous, glistening and transparent serous membrane
57
Rugae
Folds and creases in the stomach that allow stretching
58
Stomach cell types
- Mucous
- Parietal
- Chief cells
- Entero-endocrine cells
59
Small intestine structure
- Enterocytes (intestinal cells)
- brush-border enzymes
o Dipeptidases & tripeptidases
o Disaccharidases
o Enterokinases
60
Cells of the small intestine
- Paneth cells
- Stem Cells
- Goblet Cells
- Entero-endocrine cells
- Absorptive enterocytes
- Tufts cells
61
Taeniae coli
- 3 longitudinal fibres running along the colon
62
Acini
Secretory unit of the salivary glands
- Serous acini
- Mucous acini
- Mixed acinus
63
Ducts of salivary gland
- Secretory units merge = intercalated ducts
- Intercalated ducts -> striated ducts
- Striated ducts -> interlobular ducts
finally to main collecting duct
64
Hepatocytes
Liver cells that produce bile
65
Liver ducts
o Left & right hepatic ducts -> common hepatic duct
o Common hepatic duct + cystic duct (to gall bladder) -> common bile duct
o Common bile duct + pancreatic duct -> Ampulla of Vater, or Hepatopancreatic duct.
66
Whats in pancreatic juice
o Pancreatic Amylase – breaks down polysaccharides
o Pancreatic Lipase – breaks down fats
o Peptidases – trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidase
o Also has ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease which break down DNA & RNA
67
Secretin
Stims pancretic duct to secrete bicarb to lower chyme acidity
68
CCK
Stims acinar cells to secrete pancreatic juices
69
Important players in Starch/Carb digestion
- Salivary alpha-amylase cleaves alpha-1-4 glycosidic bonds
- Pancreatic alpha-amylase does same thing
- Brush border enzymes:
o Maltase hydrolyses 1-4 glycosidic bonds
o Sucrase hydrolyses alpha 1-6/4 glycosidic bonds
- Sodium-Glucose Linked Transporter
70
Important players in Protein digestion
- HCl in stomach -> pepsin from pepsinogen
- Pepsin hydrolyses peptide bonds
- Enterokinase activates zymogens -> trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase which all hydrolyse peptide bonds
- Sodium co-transporter into enterocyte
71
Important players in Lipid digestion
- CCK in small intestine -> bile is released
- bile emulsifies hydrophobic fat mols
- Pancreatic lipase enzymes cleave ester bonds in glycerol backbone
- enterocytes absorb glycerol & fatty acids via diffusion
72
Microbiome
Collective genomes of micro organisms in a particular environment
73
Microbiota
Community of micro organisms
74
Enterotypes
Refers to presiding genus (phyla) for a particular individual. Defined by presiding genus of microbe
75
Commensal interactions with the host
Co-exist without harming, only one benefits though
76
Mutualism interactions with the host
Both organisms benefit (most of our interactions with microbes)
77
Parasitic interactions with the host
1 benefits, other is harmed
78
Dysbiosis
Imbalance in bacteria associated with disease or 'skewing of commensal community'
79
Causal association of microbiome and disease
Does dysbiosis cause IBD?
80
Reverse causal association of microbiome and disease
Does IBD cause dysbiosis?
81
'A non-relevant mechanism of another risk factor' association of microbiome and disease
Does an unhealthy diet cause both dysbiosis and IBD?
82
'An important underlying mechanism for another causal factor' association of microbiome and disease
Does a bad diet cause dysbiosis which then causes IBD?
83
'Combination of mechanisms' association of microbiome and disease
Does a bad diet AND dysbiosis cause IBD?
84
Influencing factors on the microbiome
- Genetics
- Mother’s health and nutritional status
- Gestational age (premature infants have specific microbiome)
- Infant-feeding patterns
- Physical environment
- Weight loss & obesity
- Sanitary living conditions
- Dietary habits:
- Antibiotic usage and other medications
85
Probiotics
- Live microbes in food or supplements (Kombucha)
| - Beneficial to host when administered in sufficient quantities
86
Prebiotics
- Non-digestible foods/ingredients
| - Selectively stimulate growth of beneficial bacteria
87
Symbiotic
Prebiotic + Probiotic
88
Antibiotics
Diminishes the population of total and commensal bacteria
89
Secretory Diarrhoea
- Continues during fasting
| - Net loss of water & electrolytes as watery stool
90
Osmotic Diarrhoea
- Allows rapid osmotic flow of water and ions to maintain osmotic balance between lumen and plasma
91
Isotonic dehydration
- Normal serum osmolality
| - Losing the same amount of water and sodium
92
Hypertonic dehydration
- Loss of more water than sodium
| - High serum osmolality
93
Hypotonic Dehydration
- Loss of more sodium than water
| - Low serum osmolality
94
Metabolic pathway for Pyruvate in absence of O2
o Will convert to lactate – lactate goes to liver and kidney where its converted back to glucose(gluconeogenesis) and either stored as glycogen or released back into blood.
95
Cori Cycle
o Liver transforms 2 lactate mols into 1 glucose mol via pyruvate
o Taken to muscle where 1 glucose mol transform into 2 lactate mols via pyruvate
o Take back to liver and cycles
96
Protein Complex 1
- NADH dehydrogenase
- Oxidises NADH -> releases 2 e-
- 2H+ brought over -> ubiqionol from ubiqionone which goes to complex III
97
Protein Complex III
- Cytochrome C Reductase
- reduced Cytochrome C & Ubiqiunol is oxidised to release 2H+
_ Cytochrome C moves to protein complex IV
98
Protein Complex IV
Cytochrome C Oxidase
- Cytochrome C oxidised
99
Protein Complex II
Succinate Dehydrogenase
- Reduces FAD -> FADH2
- Reduces Ubiqiunone, ubiqiunol moves to complex III
100
Gluconeogenesis
Making new glucose from non-glucose molecules
101
Glycogenesis
Formation of glycogen from glucose
102
Glycogenolysis
Conversion of glycogen to glucose-6-phosphate
103
Transamination
Amine group is removed from one amino acid and added to Keto acid to form new amino acid
104
Oxidative Deamination
metabolic pathway that removes amine group from amino acid - leaving Keto-acid and ammonia
- Mostly Glutamate formed through transamination of amine group and alpha-ketoglutarate
105
Lipogenesis
Formation of fat
106
How many muscle in human adult
660
107
Functions of muscle
1. Converts chem energy into force & mechanical work
2. Maintains posture and body position
3. Supports soft tissues
4. Encircles opening of digestive and urinary tracts
5. Heat production
6. Reservoir for protein storage
108
Shapes of muscles
1. Convergent
2. Circular
3. Multipennate
4. Bipennate
5. Unipennate
6. Parallel
7. Fusiform
109
Hierarchical Organisation of skeletal muscle
1. Muscle
2. Muscle fascicle
3. Myofiber (cell)
4. Myofibril (Organelle)
5. Sarcomere
6. Myofilament
110
Epimysium
Sheath around each muscle
111
Perimysium
Covers fascicles
112
Endomysium
Covers each muscle fibre
113
Sarcolemma
Cell membrane
114
Sarcoplasm
Cytoplasm
115
M-line (Sarcomere)
Holds thick filaments in the middle of the sarcomere
116
H-zone width (Sarcomere)
Corresponds to the length of thick filament that don't overlap with thin filaments
- Middle of the A band
- Shortens during contraction
117
I band
- Light band of sarcomere
- Only thin (actin) filaments
- Shortens during contraction
118
A band
- dark band of sarcomere
| - Both thin (actin) and thick (Myosin) filaments
119
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
Modified smooth ER
120
Terminal Cisternae
Expanded portion at the end of each sarcoplasmic reticulum.
Stores Ca2+
121
Ryanodine Receptors
Ca2+ releasing channels in SR membrane
122
Transverse tubules
Populate the gap between adjacent terminal cisternae
123
3 isoforms of Myosin
1. MHC1 (slowest contraction velocity)
2. MHC2A (fastest contraction velocity)
3. MHC2X
124
Motor unit
Smallest Functional unit of neural control of muscle contraction
125
Excitation-Contraction Coupling
The process by which an electrical stimulus triggers the release of Ca2+ from the SR, initiating the mechanism of muscle contraction by sarcomere shortening
126
Concentric contraction
Force by muscle is greater than opposing force - visible shortening of muscle
127
Isometric contraction
no movement of muscle, but muscle contracts (like pushing against a wall)
128
Eccentric contraction
Muscle lengthens while trying to contract, force of muscle is smaller than the opposing force
129
Summation
If the muscle is stimulated before it fully relaxes, the force produced by the second twitch will be greater than the first
130
Incomplete Tetanus
If we increase the frequency of stimulation the relaxation time between successive twitches will get shorter and shorter as the strength of contraction increases in amplitude.
131
Complete tetanus
A stimulation frequency is eventually reached where there is no visible relaxation between successive twitches
132
Muscle spindles
Provide sensory information about the:
1. Absolute length of the muscle
2. The rate of change in length
133
Golgi Tendon Organ
Respond to tension rather than length (Not muscle spindles)
134
How many ATP are produced from 1 mol of Glucose in O2?
30-32
