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Higher Human Biology > Human Cells > Flashcards

Human Cells Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Cellular differentiation?

A

The process by which a cell develops more specialised functions by expressing the genes characteristic for that cell type.

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2
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

Body cells that are not Gametes

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3
Q

Where are somatic cells found and what do they make up?

A

Found throughout body

Make up different types of body tissue

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4
Q

How do somatic cells divide?

A

by mitosis

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5
Q

Somatic cells are diploid what does this mean?

A

contain 23 pairs of homologous chrmosomes

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6
Q

What are the 4 basic animal tissues?

A

Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nerve

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7
Q

Describe each of the 4 animal tissues?

A

Epithelial - cover the body surfaces and line the body cavities

Connective - supports, separates and binds other tissues

Muscle - made up of muscle cells, ability to contract

Nerve- main component of nervous system, senses stimuli and sends nerve impulses around the body

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8
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

A

Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth

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9
Q

What are the two main cell types in the nerve tissue?

A

Nerve cells

Glial cells

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10
Q

What are Stem cells?

A

Stem cells are unspecialised somatic cells that can divide to make copies of themselves or differentiate into specialised cells

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11
Q

What are the two types of stem cells?

A

Embryonic

Tissue

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12
Q

Describe Embryonic stem cells?

A
  • come from inner cell mass of an early embryo
  • can self-renew
  • Can differentiate into all cell types of that organism(pluripotent)
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13
Q

Describe Tissue stem cells?

A
  • can differentiate into cell types of the tissue they are found in
  • involved in growth, repair and renewal of cells
  • They are multipotent
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14
Q

What is differentiation?

A

Differentiation is when cells become specialised

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15
Q

Describe Differentiation?

A
  • Unspecialised cells become adapted to perform a specific function
  • therefore cells switch on or off particular gene
  • Once a cell differentiates it expresses genes that produce proteins characteristic for that cell type
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16
Q

Why are cells specialised?

A

To conserve energy

division of labour

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17
Q

What is a germline cell?

A

A germline cell is a cell which can divide to produce Gametes

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18
Q

Where are germline cells found?

A

Ovaries and Testes

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19
Q

What are the different ways germline cells can divide?

A

Mitosis - forms two new diploid germline daughter cells

Meiosis - forms four new haploid gamete cells

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20
Q

What is a mutation?

A

A mutation is a change to the genetic code in a cell

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21
Q

How can a mutation in a germline cell be passed to offspring?

A

The cells divide to form gametes

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22
Q

Why are mutations in somatic cells not passed to offspring?

A

these cells divide to form new somatic cells

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23
Q

Define Cancer?

A

Cancer is an uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells

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24
Q

Define Tumour?

A

Cells which continue to divide to form a mass of abnormal cells

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25
How are most cancers formed?
When series of mutations takes place in somatic cells
26
What do mutagenic agents do?
They increase the rate of mutations in cells
27
Name two Mutagenic agents?
Radiation | Carcinogenic chemicals
28
Describe Benign tumours?
- Form in an area of the body - cells adhere to each other and remain in that area - do not spread and are not classed as a cancer
29
Describe Malignant tumours?
- cells do not adhere to each other | - They can spread to other tissues and form secondary tumours
30
Where are chromosomes found?
In the nucleus
31
What do chromosomes contain ?
Genetic information which code for proteins
32
What are chromosomes made up of?
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
33
The sequence of genetic code determines what?
The genotype of an organism
34
Describe DNA?
- Twisted double helix - double stranded - built from subunits called nucleotides
35
A DNA nucleotide has 3 parts to it, name them?
Phosphate Deoxyribose sugar base
36
How is a sugar phosphate backbone formed?
The nucleotides join together between the deoxyribose sugar and the phosphate group of the next
37
What are the 4 DNA bases?
ADENINE(A) THYMINE(T) GUANINE(G) CYTOSINE(C)
38
What do Weak hydrogen bonds do?
hold the two strands of DNA together
39
What does complementary base pair mean?
The bases will always pair up with in DNA A - T C - G
40
Describe the two ends of DNA strands?
A 3' end with deoxyribose sugar at the end A 5' end with phosphate at the end
41
DNA strands will always run what to each other?
Antiparallel
42
DNA can do what ?
Control its own replication?
43
When does DNA replication take place?
Before Mitosis or Meiosis and cell division
44
DNA replication is described as what?
Semi conservative as each daughter molecule contains one strand from the original molecule and one newly synthesised strand
45
Describe stage 1 of DNA replication?
- molecule unwinds and unzips - 2 template strands formed - exposes bases of original DNA strands
46
Describe stage 2 of DNA replication?
- DNA nucleotides line up through complementary base pairing
47
Describe stage 3 of DNA replication?
-Hydrogen bonds form between base pairs
48
Describe stage 4 of DNA replication?
- DNA polymerase forms the sugar phosphate backbone at the 3' end
49
Describe DNA Polymerase?
DNA polymerase replicates a dna strand precisely using DNA nucleotides Needs a primer to start replication can only add complementary nucleotides to the 3' end
50
How are the two strands of DNA replicated differently?
leading strand is replicated continuously | lagging strand is replicated in fragments
51
what enzyme joins fragments produced in the lagging strand?
Ligase
52
What must be present for DNA replication to occur?
``` DNA template Free DNA nucleotides Primers ATP Enzymes ```
53
How is phenotype determined?
By the proteins produced as a result of gene expression
54
what does intra and extra cellular mean?
Intra cellular inside the cell | extra cellular outside the cell
55
The sequence of bases on the DNA is called what?
The genetic code
56
What is stage 1 of gene expression (Protein synthesis)?
Transcription - the genetic code is copied and a copy of it is carried on a strand of mRNA to a ribosome
57
What is stage 2 of gene expression (Protein synthesis)?
Translation - tRNA caries specific amino acids to the ribosome tRNA and mRNA pair up through complementary base pairing
58
Describe the structure of RNA
RNA is a nucleic acid | It is made up of nucleotides joined together by sugar phosphate bonding
59
What are the three types of RNA?
messenger - mRNA Transfer - tRNA Ribosomal -rNA
60
Describe the types of RNA
mRNA - Long single stranded chain that carries a copy of the genetic code from nucleus to ribosome. tRNA - Carries specific amino acids to the ribosome rNA - Ribosomes are made up of rRNA and protein subunits
61
What is a mutation?
A mutation is a change to the genetic structure of an organism?
62
How a re genetic disorders caused?
Changes to genes or chromosomes which result in proteins not being expressed or the proteins not functioning properly.
63
what are single gene mutations?
They change the sequence of nucleotides of the DNA
64
What is Bioinformatics?
Bioinformatics is the use of computer technology to identify DNA sequences
65
What is systematics?
Systematics is the comparison of the human genome sequence data that provides information on the evolutionary releationships and origins
66
What is PCR?
Polymerase chain reaction is a technique to amplify DNA outside the body. This is the process of taking tiny samples of DNA and producing vast numbers of copies of it
67
What is a metabolic pathway?
A metabolic pathway is a sequence of enzyme controlled reactions where the products of one reaction can influence the next reaction in the pathway.
68
What are the two types of chemical reaction within a cell?
Anabolic - build up reactions | Catabolic breakdown reactions
69
How do enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions?
By lowering the activation energy in the reaction
70
What is an inhibitor?
An inhibitor is a molecule that reduces or stops enzyme activity
71
What is respiration?
Respiration is a metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down glucose it is a series of enzyme controlled reactions
72
How is ATP built up?
ATP is built up from ADP and phosphate by PHOSPHORYLATION
73
What is Phosphorylation?
Phosphorylation is when a phosphate group is added to a molecule making it more reactive
74
Where does the Citric acid Cylcle take place?
In the central matrix of the mitochondria
75
What is the electron transport chain?
A group of proteins attached to the inner membrane of the mitochondria
76
What is the final electron acceptor?
Oxygen, which combines with hydrogen ions and electrons to form water.
77
What does Phosphofructokinase do?
controls the phosphorylation of the irreversible stage of glycolysis
78
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
Skeletal Cardiac Smooth
79
What are the 4 types of tissue?
Epithelial Connective Muscle Nerve
80
What are three types of connective tissue?
Bone Blood Cartilage
81
Explain Cellular differentiation?
Cellular differentiation is the process by which a cell develops more specialised functions by expressing the genes characteristic of that type of cell
82
What are somatic cells?
Body cells that are not gametes
83
Somatic cells are said to be what?
Diploid
84
Somatic cells divide by what?
Mitosis to produce genetically identical diploid daughter cells
85
Give an example of epithelial tissue
Skin
86
Skeletal muscle tissue is involved in what?
Voluntary movements
87
Nerve tissue is the main component of what?
the nervous system
88
Smooth muscle is found where?
digestive tract, bladder and arteries
89
Smooth muscle tissue is involved in what?
Involuntary movements such as peristalsis
90
Cardiac muscle is found where?
The heart
91
There are two main cell types in the nerve tissue what are they?
Nerve cells and Gial Cells
92
A nerve cell does what?
Senses stimuli and sends nerve impulses around the body through the nervous system

Higher Human Biology (6 decks)

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