Human Reproduction Flashcards
(169 cards)
1
Q
what are humans in relation to sex
A
unisexual, with 2 separate sexes, female and male
2
Q
what makes up the male reproductive organs
A
Primary sex organs - the testis
Ducts - epididymis, sperm duct (vas deferens), urethra
Accessory glands - prostrate gland
external genitalia - the penis
3
Q
What does the scrotum contain
A
the testis
4
Q
What are the functions of the scrotum
A
- temperature regulator - lower temp is needed for the formation of fertile sperm (2 to 3 degrees lower than body temp)
- houses and protects the testis
5
Q
what are the testis
A
2 oval structures suspended outside the body in the scrotum
6
Q
where are the testis during the embryonic stage
A
in the abdominal cavity just below the kidneys. before birth they descend into the scrotum
7
Q
what do the testis consist of
A
many compartments, which contain the seminiferous tubules (these total to about 250 m in each testis)
8
Q
what lines the tubules in the testis and what is between them
A
germinal epithelium lines them, between the tubules are groups of endocrine cells, the interstitial cells
9
Q
what functions do the testis have
A
they produce
- sperm - by the germinal layer
- testosterone - by the interstitial cells
10
Q
what ducts are found in the male reproductive organs
A
- epididymis
- sperm duct
- urethra
11
Q
what is the epididymis
A
a highly convoluted tubule about 5m long
12
Q
what is the epididymis formed from
A
the seminiferous tubules that join to form it
13
Q
what are the functions of the epididymis
A
immature sperm cells enter the epididymis where they:
- mature - to become motile and fertile
- are stored for several months
14
Q
what is the sperm duct
A
a continuation of the epididymis. it leaves the scrotum, passes through the prostrate gland and then enters the urethra
15
Q
what is another name for the sperm duct
A
vas deferens
16
Q
what is the function of the sperm duct
A
pushes mature sperm forward by strong peristaltic waves, from the epididymis into the urethra (ejaculation)
17
Q
what is the urethra
A
the duct at the end of the uro-genital system leading to the exterior
18
Q
what is the function of the urethra
A
it forms a common duct for the transportation of semen and urine, although these 2 processes never occur together
19
Q
what is the prostrate gland
A
a plum-sized gland surrounding the urethra at the base of the bladder
20
Q
what is the function of the prostrate gland
A
secretes a fluid that aids the transport of the sperm and contains enzymes that make sperm more active (this fluid makes up about 1/3 of the semen)
21
Q
what is the Cowper’s gland
A
2 glands found at the base of the penis
22
Q
what is the function of the Cowper’s glands
A
these glands produce an alkaline mucous-like fluid when sexually aroused. This fluid:
- neutralizes acidic urine that may still be in the urethra
- lubricates the urethra and external urethral opening to protect sperm from the mechanical damage during the ejaculation
23
Q
what is the penis
A
the organ through which the urethra passes down
24
Q
what does the penis consist of
A
special spongy tissue (erectile tissue).
running the length of the penis there are 3 sections of erectile tissue. 2 are situated on the dorsal side, the corpus cavernosa, and one on the ventral side, the corpus spongiosum
25
label a cross section of a penis
page 91
26
What is the primary mechanism that brings about an erection
the dilation of dorsal and central arteries supplying blood to the penis. This allows more blood to fill the three spongy erectile tissue chambers, causing the penis to lengthen and stiffen
27
why are erections necessary
without it sperm cannot be transferred to the females vagina during sexual intercourse
28
what protects the head of the penis
foreskin
29
what is the function of the penis
it deposits semen with sperm into the females vagina during copulation.
30
what is distinctive about the human penis
- the human male is the only mammal that has no erectile bone (baculum) in the penis, it relies entirely on engorgement (filling up) with blood to reach its erectile state
- the human penis is not attached to the abdominal wall but hangs free, this is in contrast to other mammals where the penis is stored internally until erect
31
what does semen consist of
- sperm from the testis
| - seminal fluid from the sperm duct and accessory glands eg. prostrate
32
what is the average volume of semen for an ejaculation
2.5 to 5 ml
33
whats the difference between ejaculation and erection
erection - stiffening of the penis
| ejaculation - expulsion of semen
34
whats the difference in the female reproduction tract
it is much more complex because it produces ova, female hormones and it prepares the female body to sustain a developing fetus
35
what do the female reproductive organs include
ovaries
accessory organs - fallopian tubes, uterus and vagina
external genitalia - vulva
36
what are the ovaries
two almond shaped organs found in the pelvic cavity and held in position by ligaments
- a germinal epithelium layer surrounds each ovary
- primary follicles (tiny sac-like structures) containing an immature egg are embedded in the outer layer.
- a primary follicle develops into a mature follicle (graafian follicle)
- after ovulation the graafian follicle forms the corpus luteum
37
why are the total number of eggs determined at birth
because a female is born with these primary follicles
38
what are the functions of ovaries
1. form and release eggs
| 2. production of oestrogen and progesterone
39
what are the fallopian tubes
muscular tubes lined with cilia. they stretch from each ovary to the uterus. each ends in a funnel shaped structure (the infundibulum) that has finger-like outgrowths (the fimbria)
40
what are the functions of the fallopian tubes
1. provide a pathway between the uterus and ovary for eggs, sperm and the zygote
2. are the site of fertilization and initial cell division of the zygote
3. enable the egg or developing zygote to move towards uterus - by the action of muscles and cilia
41
what is the uterus
a hollow, pear shaped thick-walled, muscular organ. It is situated between the bladder and the rectum . During pregnancy it enlarges considerably but soon after birth almost returns to its original size
42
what is the lower part of the uterus and what does it do
the cervix, it projects into the vagina. normally its opening is only millimeters in diameter, allowing menstrual blood to leave the body and sperm to gain access. It must therefore dilate hugely during the birthing process.
43
what prevents miscarriages
the sphincter muscles of the cervix, which keep the uterus closed during pregnancy
44
what does the uterine wall consist of
1. myometrium - a thick involuntary muscle layer (walls need to be thick so they can stretch when a baby develops)
2. endometrium - a lining that is richly supplied with blood vessels
45
what role does progesterone play in relation to the endometrium
at ovulation it causes the endometrium to thicken to prepare for the implantation of the blastocyst
46
what happens to the endometrium if fertilization doesn't occur
the upper layer of the endometrium becomes detached and is passed out together with the unfertilized egg. This occurs roughly every 28 days and is known as fertilization
47
what are the functions of the uterus
1. its the organ in which the blastocyst implants, develops and grows
2. the contraction of the myometrium enables the baby to be pushed out during birth
48
what is distinctive about the human uterus
they have a simplex uterus in which there is no separation between the horns and thus is still a singe cavity
49
what is the vagina
(birth canal) is a muscular passage between the uterus and the outside of the body - it has elastic, folded walls which allows it to stretch during intercourse and childbirth, the pH of the vagina is normally quite acidic which helps keep the vagina healthy and free from infection
50
what are the functions of the vagina
1. its the place where sperm are deposited during intercourse
2. forms a birth canal during birth
51
what is the vulva
it forms the external genitalia and plays no part in the reproductive process
52
what is the clitoris
a small mass of erectile tissue, found at the anterior end of the vulva. it is the female counterpart of the male penis and plays a role in sexual excitement of the female
53
what is puberty
the process of physical and psychological changes that lead to, the development of secondary sex characteristics as well as an immature individual becoming capable of reproduction
54
what effects the age at which puberty begins
genetics
55
around when does puberty begin
girls - 11 and 14
| boys - 14 and 16
56
how do climates effect puberty
in warmer climates it usually begins sooner and it colder climates 1 to 2 years later
57
how does puberty start
the pituitary gland (stimulated by the hypothalamus) releases ganodatropins which initiates puberty
- FHS stimulates ovaries to secrete oestrogen
- LHS stimulates testis to produce testosterone
Testosterone and oestrogen then initiates changes to the gonads and to other parts of the body
the results of changes to the gonads are called primary sexual characteristics (as they influence the process of reproduction) other physical changes are referred to as secondary sex characteristics (as they have nothing to do with reproduction)
58
what physical changes occur in girls during puberty
- breast development (10-12 yrs)
- hair growth in pubic area and armpits (11-12 yrs)
- increase in size of ovaries and priamry follicles
- widening of pelvis and thus hips (provide wider birth canal)
- deposition of fat on thighs, hips, upper arms and buttocks
- start of the menstrual cycle (12-18 yrs)
- first menstrual bleeding (menarche) occurs 2 yrs after breasts start to develop
- menstruation is unique to humans and close primate relatives such as chimpanzees
- ovulation (occurs after the 1st year of menstruation is 80% of girls)
- growth spurt lasting 2 to 3 yrs
- possible acne as skin gets oilier
59
what physical changes occur in boys during puberty
- enlargement of testis and penis (max size reached about 6 yrs after the onset of puberty)
- hair growth in the pubic area and armpits (13-14 yrs)
- increase in size of larynx, deeper voice
- enlargement of skeletal muscles and broadening of shoulders (by end of puberty bones are heavier and muscle mass doubles)
- sperm production begins
- growth spurt of 2 to 3 years occurs
- acne can occur (more common in boys that in girls)
60
what are some distinctive human sexual activitues
- human males are sexually fertile all the time
- menstruation
- mating in humans is not confined to the period of time when ovulation occurs
61
draw and label the life cycle of humans
page 96
62
what is gametogenesis
the formation of mature gametes (sperm and eggs) by the reproductive glands (gonads)
63
how does gametogenesis work
it involes meiosis (nuclear division) which results in a halving of the number of chromosomes (from 46, in body cells, to 23, in the gametes) this is to ensure that the number of chromosomes in the fertilized egg return to 46 after fertilisation
64
what is spermatogenesis
the sequence of events during which mature, haploid sperm are produced from the germinal epithelium in the seminiferous tubules of the testis
65
what hormone is essentail for making sperm
testosterone
66
elaborate on spermatogensis throughout a males life
- it begins at puberty between 14 and 15 yrs old and continues throughout life
- everyday a healthy adult male makes about 400 million sperm, this large number increases the chance of fertilisation
67
what are the different phases of spermatogenesis, elaborate on them
1. Multiplying phase - the diploid (2n) spermatogonia of the germinal epithelium divide repeatedly by mitosis to form new spermatogonia (2n)
2. growth phase - some spermatogonia mature and grow in size to develop into primary spermatocytes
3. reduction phase - the primary spermatocytes undergo the first meiotic division (reduction division) each forming 2 haploid spermatocytes (n) with 23 chromosomes. These undergo the second meiotic division, resulting in 4 haploid spermatids (small round cells)
4. differentiation phase - during this phase the spermatids lose cytoplasm and unnecessary cell organelles and differentiate into immature sperm
68
draw and label a spermatogenesis diagram
page 97, slide 15
69
how long does spermatogenesis take
```
72 days (from the primary spermatocyte to immature sperm)
the immature sperm are moved into the epididymis where they mature, becoming motile and fertile, and can be stored for several months
```
70
summarise spermatogenesis in a sentence
diploid cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testis undergo meiosis to form haploid sperm cells
71
draw, label and annotate a diagram of the structure of sperm
page 97
72
how long can sperm survive after ejaculation
48 hours in the female reproductive tract as it obtains nourishment from seminal fluid and female secretaion
73
what is oogenesis
the production of haploid, mature eggs in the follicles of the ovaries
74
what are the differences in the sequence of oogenesis compared to that of spermatogenesis
- no. of eggs is determined before birth
- the mature eggs are not formed continuously throughout life (starts at puberty, stops at menopause)
- oogenesis occurs in a menstrual cycle, an egg reaches maturity every 28 days while sperm are produced daily
75
what are the phases of oogenesis (elaborate)
1. multiplying phase - before birth, germ cells from the germinal epithelium which surrounds the ovary, sink in and divide by mitosis to form the primary follicles (each follicle has a large central cell, the oogonium (2n), surrounded by a single layer of cells, the theca)
2. growth phase - from puberty the primary follicles start periodically growing and developing to form graafian follicles. within each graafian follicle the oogonium grows into a primary oocyte
3. reduction and maturity phase - the primary oocyte (2n) undergoes meiosis resulting in an egg (n)
- there is no splitting of the cell during meiosis. of the 4 haploid nuclei one will form the nucleus of the egg, the other 3 will degenerate
- mature graafian follicles move periodically to the surface of the ovary, where they burst, releasing the mature egg and surrounding follicle cells (a process called ovulation)
76
what is ovulation
the release of a mature egg from a graafian follicle in the ovary every 28 days. The egg survives for 24 hours after ovulation
77
summarise oogenesis in 2 sentences
diploid cells in the ovary undergo meiosis to form a primary follicle consisting of haploid cells. One cell develops into an ovum contained in a graafian follicle
78
label and draw a diagram of oogensis
page 99, slide 15
79
draw, label and annotate the strcture of an egg
page 99
80
elaborate on the menstrual cycle
its length ranged from 21 - 35 days (28 days being the average), it includes the uterine and ovarian cycles. these cycles occur from puberty until menopause and are controlled by the endocrine system
81
what does the ovarian cycle consist of
1. development of the graafian follicle (follicular phase)
2. ovulation (ovulatory phase)
3. formation of the corpus luteum (luteal phase)
82
explain 1. development of the graafian follicle
1st phase, primary follicles mature and get ready to release an egg cell
FHS stimulates this process
during this process the primary oocyte follicle undergoes meiosis and develops into a haploid egg cell (ovum)
83
explain 2. ovulation
LH stimulates the rupturing of the graafian follicle which allows an egg to be released
this takes place on about day 14 of the cycle
84
explain 3. formation of the corpus luteum
after ovulation the remains of the graafian follicle (under the influence of LH and FSH) changes into glandular tissue called the corpus luteum (this structure produces large amounts of preogesterone and oestrogen)
85
what makes human ovulation unique
1. human females can be sexually active at any time, not just when they're going to ovulate
2. there arent any external signs or sexual excitement to signal ovulation
86
label changes in the ovary durin ovarian cycle diagram
page 100
87
what is the uterine cycle
series of changes in the endometrium and is regulated by hormones
88
what are the 2 main phases of the uterine cycle
1. changes in the endometrium - oestrogen (secreted from maturing follicles) starts the repairing of the endometrium, days 6-14 of the menstrual cycle
- progesterone and oestrogen (from the corpus luteum) cause the endometrium to thicken becoming more glandular and vasuclar to be suitable for the implantation of a fertilised egg
2. menstruation - high levels of oestrogen and progesterone trigger negative feedback, stopping LH and FSH release, as a result the corpus luteum degenerates and progesterone secretion stops
- with no hormone to maintain the endometrium the lining breaks down and is shed (menstruation)
- the detached tissue and blood pass out through the vagina as menstrual flow for 3-7 days
89
Menstrual cycle changes in ovary and uterus, diagram and graphs
page 102
90
how does hormonal control (negative feedback) work
- under the influence of FSH, a primary follicle develops into a graafian follicle and causes the ovaries to produce oestrogen
- oestrogen then stimulates the pituitary glands to produce LH
- LH causes the graafian follicle to form the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone
- the increases progesterone and oestrogen levels activate a negative feedback mechanism which stops the pituitary from secreting FSH and LH
- as there is no FSH a graafian follicle will not develop and no oestrogen, and later progesterone will be produced by the ovary
- because of the low levels of oestrogen and progesterone the secretion of FSH and later LH, will no longer be supressed and the whole cycle starts agaun
91
what is menopause
when the ovaries stop producing oestrogen and progesterone at about age 46-54, as a result the ovaries stop releasing eggs and menstruation stops
92
what does menopause cause
- hot flushes
- mood changes
- atrophy (degeneration of the reproductive organs)
- bone mass loss
- increasing risk of cardiac disease
some doctors prescribe HRT (hormone replacement theory) of low dose oestrogen-progesterone preparations in order for women to cope during menopause
93
what is the difference between aquatic animals and humans in regards to fertilisation
with humans sperm must be transferred as close to the egg as possible, whereas with aquatic animals the sperm and ova are simply released into the water and fertilisation occurs externally
94
whats the difference between copulation and fertilisation
copulation - transfer of sperm into the vagina of the female when the male organ (the penis) is inserted and sperm are deposited near the cervix
only after copulation can fertilisation occur
fertilisation - the fusion of the sperm nucleus with the eg nucleus to form a diploid cell known as zygote
95
how sperm get to ova label diagram
page 105
96
what is gestation
the time between conception (fertilisation) and birth, during which the embryo and then the fetus develops in the uterus. Usually gestation lasts about 280 days, 40 weeks
97
what are the stages of prenatal development
1. early development (0 to end of 2 months)
- fertilisation
- blastocyst and implantation formation
- embryo formation
2. later development (3 months to birth)
98
where does fertilisation occur
in the fallopian tubes
99
where does the sperm go after being deposited in the vagina
through the cervix, uterus and into the fallopian tubes until they reach the egg
100
how does the egg get to the fallopian tubes
it is sucked into the fallopian tubes by the action of fimbriae
101
where in the fallopian tube does fertilisation occur
usually in the top part (outer third)
102
explain the fertilisation process
1. thousands of sperm surround the egg
2. hydrolytic (splitting molecules using water) enzymes break down the follicle cells
3. only one sperm penetrates the membrane of the egg, the tail is discarded
4. the nuclei of the sperm and egg fuse forming a diploid zygote
5. a fertilisation membrane forms immediately which prevents other sperm from entering the egg
103
draw and label a diagram of the process of fertilisation
page 106
104
what happens after fertilisation (blastocyst formation and implantation)
1. the diploid zygote divides immediately by mitosis to form two cells
2. each of these divides repeatedly until a solid ball of cells (the morula) is formed
- the morula develops into a hollow, fluid filled ball of cells called the blastocyst
- the outer cells forming the wall of the blastocyst form a layer known as the trophoblast (tropho=relates to feeding)
3. an inner cell mass develops from the trophoblast
4. these changes take place as the developing embryo moves along the fallopian tube towards the uterus (it moves by a combo of peristaltic waves and rhythmic beating of the tubes cilia)
5. after a few days in the uterus the blastocyst sinks into the thickened, highly vascular endometrium (called implantation and occurs about 20 days after fertilization)
105
what takes place after implantation (formation of the embryo)
1. inner cell mass forms the;
- embryo (the future baby)
- amnion (membrane that becomes fluid filled)
- yolk sac (forms part of the umbilical cord)
2. trophoblast develops villi that grow into the endometrium to form the placenta
106
label a young embryo diagram
page 107
107
what layers does the embryo develop into
1. ectoderm (outer layer)
2. endoderm (inner layer)
3. mesoderm (between the endo and ecto)
108
what comes from these embryo layers
all the different tissues and organs of the body will form from these layers by further cell division or differentiation, during this time all major organs appear
109
how much does the embryo grow during the differentiation period
1.5mm - 30mm
110
what can cause embryological malformations
- drugs
- viruses (german measles)
- environmental factors (pesticides)
111
how long does the embryonic phase last
third week until the eighth week after fertilisation
112
how long does the later development or foetal period last
9th week to the end of pregnancy
113
what changes occur during the foetal period
only some differentiation occurs
| the main change is rapid growth of the body
114
what happens as the fetus approaches full term
- bones ossify
- adipose (fat) tissue is formed
- antibodies enter the fetus via the placenta to fight diseases
- the fetus usually turns so that the head is fcaing down towards the cervix
115
what is an ultrasound
a type of technology that uses high-pitched sound waves that cannot be heard by the human ear, the sound bounces off solid structures, eg. the embryo and fetus, therefore these echoes form an image and give the doctor a view of the growing fetus and info of:
- fetal size, age, growth
- an early diagnosis of any complications
116
what is the difference between an embryo and a fetus
embryo - refers to the developing zygote until 8 weeks
| fetus - after the organs have develped from 9 weeks until birth
117
label a diagram of a young fetus
page 111
118
what is the placenta
temporary disc shaped organ, richly supplied with maternal and fetal blood vessels. it connects with the fetus with its mothers blood at the end of the umbilical cord
119
why dont the fetal and mothers blood mix and what would happen if they did
because the fetal capillaries have thin walls
| if the blood mixed it could cause a blood clot resulting in the death of the fetus
120
how do substances therefore move between the mother and fetal blood
by diffusion
121
what are the functions of the placenta
1. oxygen and dissolved food substances such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, ions and vitamins pass from the mom to the fetal blood system for nutrition and respiration
2. fetal waste products of metabolism, eg. urea and carbon dioxide pass into the maternal blood system for excretion
3. some maternal antibodies pass to the fetus providing temporary passive immunity to certain diseases (results in the child being immune to most diseases during the 1st 6 months)
4. the placenta acts as a barrier (micro filter) preventing many pathogenic microorganisms and drugs from entering the fetus from the mother. (some pass through, german measles, HIV and syphilis)
5. the placenta also has endocrine functions
122
what are the endocrine functions of the placenta
1. after 3 months of pregnancy the placenta takes over the function of secreting progesterone and oestrogen from the ovaries (corpus luteum)
- these hormones are essential for maintaining the pregnancy
- progesterone prevents menstruation which would cause the loss of the fetus
2. late in pergnancy it secretes relaxin, a hormone which relaxes joints and ligaments to assist in the delivery of the baby
3. in early pregnancy the placenta secretes human chorionic gonadotropin which is the basis of many pregnancy tests
123
what is the amnion
a membrane that surrouds the developing fetus and embryo, it secretes a fluid called amniotic fluid that fills the amniotic cavity
124
what is amniotic fluid
consists of about 99% water, fetal cells and waste products
| the cells contain fetal genetic info
125
what are the functions of amniotic fluid
its essential for developing fetuses
1. supports the fetus - allowing it the freedom to move easily and so prevent malformations due to gravity or pressure
2. it cushions and protects the fetus from damage
3. provides a medium in which to practice breathing and swallowing movements
4. it holds urine as it is released from the fetus
5. it protects the fetus against changes in temperature and dehydration
126
what is the umbilical chord
a flexible cord extending from the fetuses abdomen to the placenta, it joins the fetus to its mother and contains two umbilical arteries and a single umbilical vein
127
what are the functions of the umbilical cord
1. umbilical arteries - carries waste (carbon dioxide and other excretory waste) away from fetus, these waste products diffuse into the mothers blood and are excreted
2. umbilical vein - brings oxygenated blood and nutrients (glucose and amino acids) to the fetus from the mother
128
how long is the first trimester and what changes occur
first 12 weeks (during this time risk of birth defects and miscarriages are highest)
- menstruation stops
- woman experiences tiredness, mood swings, cravings or distaste for certain foods
- nausea or morning sickness, which occurs in 70% of women and can occur at any time of the day
- breasts become tender and swollen
129
how long is the 2nd trimester and what changes occur
weeks 13 to 28
- women have more energy
- morning sickness lessens, eventually disappearing
- uterus starts expanding, visible baby bump will appear
- moving of fetus can be felt (4th month)
- patches of darker skin can appear on the face (mask of pregnancy)
130
how long is the 3rd trimester and what changes occur
weeks 29 to 40
- final weight gain takes place (fetus will be gaining about 28g per day)
- women will feel more frequent stronger movements of the fetus
- many women find breathing difficult
- breast become tender and may leak colostrum (watery pre-milk fluid)
- uterus muscles begin contracting (help the mom prepare for birth)
- mothers abdomen changes shape, drops down, due to the fetus turning in a downward position for birth, fetal head descends into pelvic cavity (breathing becomes easier, reduces bladder capacity, often backache)
131
what is birth
expulsion of the fetus, placenta and surrounding membranes from the uterus
132
why does birth take place
the placenta becomes less effective
133
what is distinctive about birth in humans
1. the human baby s born relatively immature and very helpless, but if it grew any larger it wouldnt be able to leave the body succesfully because:
- human birth canals are much narrower than other mammals as we are upright and bipedal which requires a narrower pelvis
- the brain is much larger than that of other primates, it enlarged any more it wouldnt pass through the birth canal
2. the baby is usually born head first, the head is the largest diameter of the babies body
134
how does birth occur
for a normal birth the fetus must lie with its headpoiting downward towards the cervix
just before birth, very high levels of oestregen in the mothers blood cause the hypophysis to release the hormone oxytocin, which promotes contraction of the uterine wall
entire birth process may take from a few hours to well over a day
135
what are the 3 stages of birth
1. dilation of the cervix
2. delivery of the baby
3. expulsion of the placenta
136
explain 1. dilation of the cervix
- Myometrium starts contracting
- This forces the amnion and foetus towards the cervix
- Cervix and uterus start to dilate
- When the cervix is fully dilated, the amnion breaks under pressure, passing
‘water’ through the birth canal
137
explain 2. delivery of the baby
- Powerful contractions of uterus and abdominal muscles push the baby out
head first
- Umbilical cord tied and cut
- Fontanelles allow for the head to change shape as it is forced through the birth
canal
138
explain 3. expulsion of the placenta
- 20 min after delivery
- umbilical cord + placenta come away from uterine wall
- contractions force it out
139
what are the birth options
vaginal childbirth (natural birth(
cesarean section
140
what are mammary glands
organs in female mammals that produce milk to feed young offspring
in humans mammary glands are in the breasts and made up of milk secreting cells
141
what is lactation
milk production
142
label diagram of mammary gland
page 116
143
explain the lactation process
- during pregnancy oestrogen and progesterone stimulate the growth and development of the milk ducts in the breasts
- after birth prolactin from the pituitary gland stimulates the mammary glands to produce milk
- a second hormone (oxytocin) from the hypothalamus causes the release of milk from the glands
144
why is breast feeding favoured above bottle feeding
it contains antibodies which can help a baby fight infections, it contains all the nutrients in the perfect proportions for optimal growth and it is cheap and easy
145
how do contraceptives work
1. prevent egg being releases (prevent ovulation)
2. prevent sperm reaching egg (prevent fertilisation)
3. prevent embryo implantation or development
146
what is an example of preventing ovulation
The pill, which contains oestrogen and progesterone that prevent pregnancy by inhibiting ovulation and therefore fertilization
147
give an example of preventing fertilisation
1. sterilisation - (vasectomy in men) the sperm duct is cut, preventing sperm from being expelled, the sperm that are made eventually break down and get absorbed back into the body
- (tubal ligation in women) the fallopian tubes are tied which prevents the egg and sperm from meeting
2. condom - a physical barrier used during sex, reduces the possibilty of STI's
3. spermicide - chemicals that kill sperm, usually used with condoms because alone they're not very effective
4. diaphragm - a shallow bendable cup placed over the cervix before sex and left in place for at least 6 hours after sex
148
give an example of preventing embryo implantation and development
MAP (morning after pill) - must be started within 72 hours of having sex, the oestrogen progesterone combo confuses the hormonal signals
UID (intrauterine device) - object made of copper, stainless steel or plastic, inserted into the uterus, prevents implantation of the blastocyst
RU 486 (mifepristone) - a pill, taken within the first 7 weeks of pregnancy, it blocks the the action of progesterone so that if implantation occurs then the endometrium disentergrates resulting in miscarriage
149
what are some other methods of contraception
Injectables (3 month injection) - contains progesterone
rhythm method - unprotected sex during the ovulation period is avoided
150
when is the incidence of STI's highest
15-29 yrs of age
151
give examples of STI's
1. caused by viruses - HIV/Aids, genital warts, genital herpes
2. caused by bacteria - gonorrhoea, syphilis
3. caused by fungi - thrush
152
what are some symptoms of Aids
- loss of appetite
- rapid weight loss
- diarrhoea lasting longer than a month
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what is syphilis
most commonly caused STI after aids
| caused by tears in mucous membranes in the genital areas
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how is syphilis transmitted
sexually or to the fetus
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how is syphilis diagnosed
blood tests
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what are some symptoms of syphilis
- small bump on penis, vagina or cervix that develops into a painless sore or ulcer
- skin rash and mild fever
- damage to many organs can occur after ten or more years
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how do you treat syphilis
antibiotics
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what is gonorrhoea
casued by bacterium that live and breed in the moist, warm linings of the reproductive and urinary tubes
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what are symptoms of gonorrhoea
in women
- panful urination and sex
- cloudy, yellowish vaginal discharge
- starts in the cervix, 50-60% of women dont know because they don't have symptoms at first
in men
- yellowish urethral discharge and painful urination
- testicles are painful
85% of infected men symtoms develop within 2-10 days of being infected
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what is the treatment for gonorrhoea
antibiotics
It is important to:
- retest the infected person once the antibiotics are finished
- treat all sexual partners of the infected person
- abstain from sexual activity until gonorrhoea has cleared up
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what are the complications of gonorrhoea
- infection can spread resulting in pelvic inflammatory disease, this can damage reproductive organs and can lead to infertility
- in pregnant women there's an increased risk of an ectopic pregnancy, a miscarriage or premature birth
- during childbirth the bacteria may pass from a mother to her baby, this could lead to pneumonia or a serious eye infection that can cause blindness in the baby
- re-infection with gonorrhoea is common
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how to avoid or prevent the transmission of STI's
- abstain from sex
- abstain from alcohol and drugs
- choose sexual partners carefully
- use a condom
- don't ignore symptoms
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what are the possible causes of male infertility
1. damage to the testis, due to mumps, chemo, trauma or surgery
- testicular damage can lead to a low sperm count or poor sperm quality
2. sometimes the sperm ducts can be blocked due to an infection
3. most cases however don't have identifable causes
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what treatment can help male infertility
- if sperm count are too low due to incorrect levels of LH and FSH, hormone injections are given
- surgical inervention can be attempted to clear blocked sperm ducts
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what causes female infertility
- problems with ovulation (viable eggs are not made)
- blocked oviducts that prevent egg and sperm from meeting
- problems with the uterus (fibroids) which can prevent the implantation of blastocyst
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how can female infertility be treated
1. fertility drugs
- in general these drugs cause the release of hormones that trigger or regulate ovulation
2. surgical treatments
- unblocking fallopian tubes, removing fibroids, clearing up endometriosis
3. assisted conception
- artificial insemination = sperm donor
- in vitro fertilisation (IVF) = egg donor
- gamete intra-fallopian transfer (GIFT)
- intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)
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what is surrogacy
when a women carries a baby on behalf of future parents who are medically unable to do so
this can be done by IVF or artificial insemination , meaning the embryo and resulting baby will not be genetically related to the surrogate mother
- the surrogate surrenders any parental rights
- surrogacy must be approved by a high court
- surrogacy may not be done for commercial gain
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what is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
a pattern of birth defects, learning and behavioural problems affecting children whose mothers consumed alcohol during pregnancy
there are currently an estimated 2 million people in SA with FAS
during pregnancy the alcohol freely crosses the placenta and causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus
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what are some features of FAS
phyysical features:
- short
- low birth weight
- poor weight gain
- microcephaly
other features become more evident as the child grows:
- poor attention span
- poor motor skills
- slow language development
- hyperactivity disorder
- learning disabilities or mental retardation
- poor social skills
there is no treatment
