Ideology and Science Flashcards
(20 cards)
The impact of science
Science has profoundly transformed society, improving medicine, daily life, and economic productivity, which has led to strong public trust in its power. However, this trust has been tempered by the recognition that science also contributes to serious global problems like pollution and weapons. Despite both its benefits and risks, science stands out from other belief systems due to its unique ability to explain, predict, and control the world.
open belif systems
According to Karl Popper, science is successful because it is an open belief system where theories are constantly tested, criticised, and subject to falsification. Scientists actively seek to disprove existing theories, and when evidence contradicts a theory, it is discarded in favour of a better explanation. This process allows scientific knowledge to grow cumulatively, building on past discoveries. As Newton acknowledged, progress comes from building on the work of others. However, no scientific theory is ever considered absolute truth, as it can always be challenged or disproven—just as Copernicus disproved the long-held belief that the sun revolved around the earth. For Popper, the strength of science lies in its openness to revision and critical evaluation.
CUDOS - Merton
Robert K. Merton argued that science only grew rapidly in recent centuries because it gained support from other social institutions and values, particularly during the Protestant Reformation. Like Popper, Merton believed science needs a set of norms—or an “ethos”—to thrive.
He identified four key norms, known as CUDOS:
Communism (sharing knowledge publicly),
Universalism (judging knowledge by objective criteria),
Disinterestedness (pursuing knowledge for its own sake),
Organised Scepticism (questioning all ideas without treating any as sacred).
These norms help ensure science remains a self-correcting and progressive institution.
science vs religion, open and closed
Science is considered an open belief system because its knowledge is provisional, open to testing, and can be challenged or disproven. In contrast, religion is seen as a closed belief system, claiming absolute, sacred truth that cannot be questioned or changed.
Robin Horton supports this distinction, arguing that closed systems like religion or magic resist disproof by using self-reinforcing explanations or “get-out clauses” to protect core beliefs.
Edward Evans-Pritchard’s study of the Azande people illustrates how such belief systems maintain themselves despite contradictions, reinforcing Horton’s view.
Witchcraf in the Azante
The Azande believe natural events have natural causes, but when misfortune strikes unexpectedly, they explain it through witchcraft, often blaming jealous neighbours. Disputes are resolved using a magic poison oracle involving a chicken and a potion called benge. If the chicken dies, it confirms witchcraft, prompting the accused—who may not even know they are a witch—to apologise and stop the harm. Evans-Pritchard argues this belief system serves social functions by preventing grudges, encouraging good behaviour, and acting as social control. However, it is a closed belief system, resistant to disproof; any contradictory evidence is reinterpreted to reinforce belief, trapping the Azande in their own logic.
Self sustaining belifs
Polanyi (1958) argues that all belief systems use three key strategies to protect themselves from contradictory evidence:
circularity, where beliefs are justified by other beliefs within the same system
subsidiary explanations, which offer excuses when predictions fail (e.g., blaming incorrect procedures)
denial of legitimacy to rivals, where alternative viewpoints are rejected outright, such as creationists denying evolutionary science.
These devices help maintain the belief system regardless of opposing evidence.
Science as a closed system
Although Popper views science as an open belief system, others argue it can also behave like a closed system. Polanyi suggests science, like other belief systems, resists fundamental challenges to its core beliefs. Kuhn supports this, arguing that mature sciences operate within a paradigm—a shared framework that defines accepted methods, evidence, and research goals. Scientists are trained to work within this paradigm, and challenging it can lead to rejection or exclusion, as in the case of Dr Velikovsky. Only during rare scientific revolutions, when many anomalies arise, do scientists become open to fundamentally new ideas.
The sociology of scientific knowledge
Interpretivist sociologists argue that scientific knowledge is socially constructed, not purely objective. Building on Kuhn’s ideas, they claim that what scientists accept as ‘facts’ is shaped by shared paradigms and the tools they use. Karin Knorr-Cetina highlights how new instruments (like microscopes or telescopes) enable new observations and the creation of new ‘facts’. She also notes that laboratory conditions are highly artificial, with specially prepared materials, meaning science studies a constructed version of reality rather than the natural world itself.
Little green men
Ethnomethodologist Steve Woolgar (1992) argues that scientists interpret the world in the same way as anyone else, by devising theories and persuading others to accept their interpretations. He illustrates this with the 1967 discovery of pulsars. Initially, scientists at Cambridge labeled the signals from their radio telescope as ‘LGM’ (Little Green Men), humorously suggesting extraterrestrial life. However, they later adopted a more scientifically acceptable explanation, identifying the signals as coming from an unknown type of star. Despite this, debate continued for years, highlighting that scientific facts are socially constructed beliefs that gain acceptance within the scientific community, rather than objective truths.
Marxism, feminism and postmodernism
Critical perspectives like Marxism, feminism, and postmodernism challenge the idea that scientific knowledge represents pure truth. Marxists argue that science serves the ruling class, with advances often driven by capitalist needs, such as the development of weaponry. Feminists contend that science has been used to justify male dominance. Postmodernists, such as Lyotard (1984), view science as a “meta-narrative” that falsely claims to possess the truth, alongside other ideologies like religion and Marxism. They argue that science, particularly technoscience, often serves capitalist interests by producing commodities for profit rather than advancing genuine progress.
Ideology
A basic definition of ideology is that it is a worldview or a set of ideas and values - in other words, a belief system.
However, the term is very widely used in sociology and has taken on a number of related meanings. These often include negative aspects such as the following:
* Distorted, false or mistaken ideas about the world, or a partial, one-sided or biased view of reality.
* Ideas that conceal the interests of a particular group, or that legitimate (justify) their privileges.
* Ideas that prevent change by misleading people about the reality of the situation they are in or about their own true interests or position.
A self-sustaining belief system that is irrational and closed to criticism.
Therefore, very often when someone uses the term ideology to describe a belief system, it means they regard it as factually and/or morally wrong.
Marxism and ideology
Marxism views society as divided between the capitalist ruling class, who control production, and the working class, who sell their labor. The capitalists exploit workers for profit, and Marxists call for a socialist revolution to establish a classless, communist society with collective ownership. Workers must develop class consciousness to recognize their exploitation, but the ruling class controls institutions like education, media, and religion to uphold ideologies that reinforce the current social order.
Ruling-class ideology includes ideas and beliefs such as:
* That equality will never work because it goes against
‘human nature’
* Victim blaming ideas about poverty, such as what Bowles and Gintis (1976) call ‘the poor are dumb’ theory of meritocracy: everyone has an equal chance in life, so the poor must be poor because they are stupid or lazy.
* Racist ideas about the inferiority of minority ethnic groups, which divide Black and White workers and make them easier to rule.
Thus the dominant ideas are the ideas of the ruling class and they function to prevent change by creating a false consciousness among the workers. However, despite these ideological barriers, Marx believes that ultimately the working class will develop a true class consciousness and unite to overthrow capitalism.
hegemony and revoloution
Antonio Gramsci (1971) developed the concept of hegemony, referring to the ruling class’s ideological dominance over society. He argued that the working class can challenge this hegemony because they have a dual consciousness, shaped by both ruling-class ideology and their own experiences of exploitation. Gramsci believed that a political party of “organic intellectuals” — workers who develop class consciousness through anti-capitalist struggles — is necessary for revolution. However, some critics, like Abercrombie et al. (2015), argue that economic factors, such as the fear of unemployment, rather than ideology, prevent workers from rebelling.
the ideology of nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that asserts nations are real, distinct communities with unique characteristics and a shared history, and that each nation should be self-governing. It emphasizes national loyalty and identity above other affiliations like tribe, class, or religion.
However, Benedict Anderson (2006) argues that a nation is an “imagined community” because, despite identifying with it, individuals will never personally know most of its members. This imagined community fosters a sense of unity and common purpose among millions of strangers.
Marxism: nationalism as false consciousness
Marx was an internationalist, believing that nationalism is a form of false class consciousness that divides the working class and hinders the overthrow of capitalism. In the Marxist view, nationalism makes workers feel more connected to the capitalists of their own country than to workers in other nations, allowing the ruling class to persuade them to fight wars for their interests. The Communist Manifesto (1848) calls for workers of all countries to unite in their struggle against capitalism.
Functionalism: nationalism as civil religion
Functionalists view nationalism as a secular civil religion that unites individuals into larger social and political communities, similar to the role religion plays in society. In modern, secular, and multi-faith societies, nationalism fosters a sense of belonging and social solidarity, transcending divisions like religion or class. Education plays a key role in this process, promoting collective rituals such as the national anthem and flag, and teaching the nation’s history, often blending myth with fact.
Gellner: nationalism and modernity
Ernest Gellner argues that nationalism is a modern phenomenon, not a timeless tradition as it claims. With industrialisation, large-scale, impersonal societies emerged, requiring a common culture and language to enable communication and cooperation among citizens. Nationalism, through mass education, creates this shared identity and fosters equality among citizens. Gellner also notes that elites use nationalism to motivate people to endure the hardships of early industrialisation, facilitating state modernization.
Karl Mannheim: ideology and utopia
Mannheim (1929) argues that all belief systems reflect the interests of particular groups or classes, leading to partial worldviews.
He distinguishes between two types of belief systems:
ideological thought, which justifies maintaining the status quo and serves the interests of privileged groups (like the capitalist class),
utopian thought, which advocates for social change and reflects the interests of the underprivileged.
Marxism is an example of utopian thought. Mannheim believes that intellectuals, who are tied to specific social groups, create these belief systems, and because they represent particular interests, they only provide partial truths, contributing to societal conflict and opposing viewpoints.
The free-floating intelligentsia
Mannheim suggests that the solution to partial worldviews is to create a “free-floating intelligentsia” that is detached from specific social groups. These intellectuals, not aligned with any particular group, would be able to synthesize different ideologies and create a “total” worldview representing the interests of society as a whole. However, synthesizing conflicting ideologies, such as Marxist ideas about a classless society and conservative views on hierarchy, poses a significant challenge.
feminism and ideology
Feminists argue that gender inequality is a fundamental societal division, with patriarchal ideologies playing a key role in perpetuating it. These ideologies, present in science and religion, often justify women’s subordination.
For example, Pauline Marks (1979) highlights how 19th-century male scientists and educators argued that educating women would undermine their natural role as mothers. Religious beliefs have similarly contributed to gender inequality, with some traditions treating women as impure, especially after childbirth or menstruation, leading to purification rituals. However, not all religious systems subordinate women. Pre-patriarchal religions often celebrated female deities, and Hinduism includes powerful goddesses as creators of the universe.
